The skin has three main layers - the epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous layer. The epidermis is a thin outer layer made of stratified squamous epithelium with several layers including the basal and stratum corneum layers. Below this is the thicker dermis layer made of dense connective tissue containing blood vessels, nerves, hair follicles, and sweat and sebaceous glands. The deepest layer is the subcutaneous tissue containing fat and connective tissue. The skin provides protection from damage and infection, contains sensory receptors, regulates body temperature, and plays a role in fluid balance and vitamin D synthesis through sweat and sebaceous glands.
The skin is the largest organ of the body, with a total area of about 20 square feet. ... Skin has three layers: The epidermis, the outermost layer of skin, provides a waterproof barrier and creates our skin tone. The dermis, beneath the epidermis, contains tough connective tissue, hair follicles, and sweat glands.
The integumentary system is the organ system that protects the body from various kinds of damage, such as loss of water or abrasion from outside. The system comprises the skin and its appendages (including hair, scales, feathers, hooves, and nails). The integumentary system has a variety of functions; it may serve to waterproof, cushion, and protect the deeper tissues, excrete wastes, and regulate temperature, and is the attachment site for sensory receptors to detect pain, sensation, pressure, and temperature. In most terrestrial vertebrates with significant exposure to sunlight, the integumentary system also provides for vitamin D synthesis.
The skin is the largest organ of the body, with a total area of about 20 square feet. ... Skin has three layers: The epidermis, the outermost layer of skin, provides a waterproof barrier and creates our skin tone. The dermis, beneath the epidermis, contains tough connective tissue, hair follicles, and sweat glands.
The integumentary system is the organ system that protects the body from various kinds of damage, such as loss of water or abrasion from outside. The system comprises the skin and its appendages (including hair, scales, feathers, hooves, and nails). The integumentary system has a variety of functions; it may serve to waterproof, cushion, and protect the deeper tissues, excrete wastes, and regulate temperature, and is the attachment site for sensory receptors to detect pain, sensation, pressure, and temperature. In most terrestrial vertebrates with significant exposure to sunlight, the integumentary system also provides for vitamin D synthesis.
The power point is just to help learners to have basic understanding on the anatomy and physiology of the skin (integumentary system).
The two major classes of the skin has been briefly stated as well as the major layers of the skin.
cerebrum, sulci and gyri of cerebrum, lobes of cerebrum, frontal lobe , parietal lobe, temporal lobe and occipital lobe, sulci and gyri presnet in each lobes, and the functional areas , of cerebrum, brodmann areas of cerebrum, borders and surfaces of cerebrum, insula,
The power point is just to help learners to have basic understanding on the anatomy and physiology of the skin (integumentary system).
The two major classes of the skin has been briefly stated as well as the major layers of the skin.
cerebrum, sulci and gyri of cerebrum, lobes of cerebrum, frontal lobe , parietal lobe, temporal lobe and occipital lobe, sulci and gyri presnet in each lobes, and the functional areas , of cerebrum, brodmann areas of cerebrum, borders and surfaces of cerebrum, insula,
The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a lentivirus (a subgroup of retrovirus) that causes HIV infection and over time acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).[1][2] AIDS is a condition in humans in which progressive failure of the immune system allows life-threatening opportunistic infections and cancers to thrive. Without treatment, average survival time after infection with HIV is estimated to be 9 to 11 years, depending on the HIV subtype.[3] Infection with HIV occurs by the transfer of blood, semen, vaginal fluid, pre-ejaculate, or breast milk. Within these bodily fluids, HIV is present as both free virus particles and virus within infected immune cells.
HIV infects vital cells in the human immune system such as helper T cells (specifically CD4+ T cells), macrophages, and dendritic cells.[4] HIV infection leads to low levels of CD4+ T cells through a number of mechanisms, including pyroptosis of abortively infected T cells,[5] apoptosis of uninfected bystander cells,[6] direct viral killing of infected cells, and killing of infected CD4+ T cells by CD8 cytotoxic lymphocytes that recognize infected cells.[7] When CD4+ T cell numbers decline below a critical level, cell-mediated immunity is lost, and the body becomes progressively more susceptible to opportunistic infections.
Communicable diseases occur only when the causative agent comes into contact with a susceptible host in a suitable environment. Prevention and control efforts for communicable diseases may be directed to any of these three elements. Communicable diseases affect both individuals and communities, so control efforts may be directed at both. Treatment of persons with communicable diseases with antibiotics typically kills the agent and renders them noninfectious. Thus, treatment is also prevention. A simple way to prevent the occurrence of communicable diseases is to eliminate the infectious agent through, for example, cooking food, washing hands, and sterilizing surgical instruments between use. Assuring the safety of drinking water through filtration and chlorination and treating sewage appropriately are other important means of preventing the spread of communicable diseases.
For most communicable diseases there is an interval between infection and occurrence of symptoms (the incubation period) in which the infectious agent is multiplying or developing. Some persons who are infected may never develop manifestations of the disease even though they may be capable of transmitting it (inapparent infection). Some persons may carry (and transmit) the agent over prolonged periods (carriers) whether or not they develop symptoms. Treatment during the incubation period may cure the infection, thereby preventing both disease and transmission. This preventive treatment (chemoprophylaxis) is often used in persons who have been exposed to sexually transmitted diseases such as syphilis and gonorrhea. It also is effective in persons who have been infected with tuberculosis, although the preventive treatment must be given for several months.
The susceptibility of the host to a specific infectious agent can be altered through immunization (e.g., against measles) or through taking medications that can prevent establishment of infection following exposure (chemoprophylaxis). Since malnutrition and specific vitamin deficiencies (such as vitamin A) may increase susceptibility to infection, ensuring proper nutrition and administering vitamin A can be more general ways of increasing host resistance. If persons survive a communicable disease, he or she may develop immunity that will prevent the disease from recurring if re-exposed to the causative agent.
Inflammation by Dr. Amit T. Suryawanshi, Oral Surgeon, Pune All Good Things
Hi. This is Dr. Amit T. Suryawanshi. Oral & Maxillofacial surgeon from Pune, India. I am here on slideshare.com to share some of my own presentations presented at various levels in the field of OMFS. Hope this would somehow be helpful to you making your presentations. All the best.
skin and fascia description for medical students from clinical anatomy by richard s. snell .you get everything you want follow me back and tell anything which is in your heart :) <3
slides by our kind hearted teacher MAM AMMARAH :)
Anatomy and physiology of skin. Explanation on epidermis, dermis and hypodermis. The various mechanoreceptors, pigments and glands of skin. Physiologic function of the skin
The skin : هذا العرض يتحدث عن الجلد الذي يعتبر اكبر عضو بالجسم وشرح الطبقاة المكونة للجلد :
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https://t.me/GoldenAlzaidy
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youtube::: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Orumw-PyNjw
Integumentary system
-The organs of the integumentary system include the skin and its accessory structures including hair, nails, and glands, as well as blood vessels, muscles and nerves.
-Dermatology is the medical specialty for the diagnosis and treatment of disorders of the integumentary system.
Structure Of The Skin
The skin (cutaneous membrane) covers the body and is the largest organ of the body by surface area and weight.
Its area is about 2 square meters (22 square feet) and weighs 4.5-5kg (10-11 lb), about 7% of body weight.
It is 0.5 – 4 mm thick, thinnest on the eyelids, thickest on the heels, the average thickness is 1 – 2 mm.
It consists of two major layers:
Outer, thinner layer called the epidermis, consists of epithelial tissue. Inner, thicker layer called the dermis.
Beneath the dermis is a subcutaneous layer (also called hypodermis) which attaches the skin to the underlying tissues and organs.
1. EPIDERMIS
-Covers, protects and waterproofs.
Contains five main layers:
- Stratum Basale
- Stratum Spinosum
- Stratum Granulosum
- Stratum lucidum
- Stratum corneum
The epidermis has a number of important characteristics:
The epidermis is composed of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium.
-It contains four major types of cells:
Keratinocytes (90% of the cells): It produce keratin which is a tough fibrous protein that provides protection.
-Melanocytes: which produce the pigment melanin that protects against damage by ultraviolet radiation.
-Langerhans cells: involved in immune responses, arise from red bone marrow.
-Merkel cells: which function in the sensation of touch along with the adjacent tactile discs.
2. DERMIS
-It is a deeper layer of skin, composed of connective tissue containing collagen and elastic fibers.
-It contains blood and lymph vessels, nerves, and other structures, such as hair follicles and sweat glands.
-The epidermis is avascular and cells of this layer get their oxygen and nutrients from capillaries in the dermis.
-The dermis can be divided into papillary layer and reticular layer.
Hypodermis :
- The hypodermis (also called the subcutaneous layer) is a layer directly below the dermis and serves to connect the skin to the underlying fascia (fibrous tissue) of the bones and muscles.
--Two types of glands are present in the skin over most of the body
These are sweat glands and sebaceous glands.
--Function Of Skin
Protection:
Sensation:
Heat regulation:
Storage and synthesis:
Synthesis of vitamin D:
Excretion and homeostasis:
Secretion:
Absorption:
Water resistance:
Colour :
Healing of wounds:
Aids in the diagnosis:
this power point is useful to understand the theorical concept of a sterilization & disinfection ,autoclave for nursing students......hope it will be useful for you.
all relevant information that will assist the nurses to acquire the depth knowledge regarding morphological features of bacteria and its subject matter...............
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
- WOMEN’S HEALTH: FERTILITY PRESERVATION
- WHAT’S NEW IN THE TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS,
ONCOLOGICAL AND INFLAMMATORY SKIN DISEASES?
- ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ETHICS
- GENE THERAPY
- BEYOND BORDERS: GLOBAL INITIATIVES FOR DEMOCRATIZING LIFE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGIES AND PROMOTING ACCESS TO HEALTHCARE
- ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN LIFE SCIENCES
- Prix Galien International Awards Ceremony
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
New Drug Discovery and Development .....NEHA GUPTA
The "New Drug Discovery and Development" process involves the identification, design, testing, and manufacturing of novel pharmaceutical compounds with the aim of introducing new and improved treatments for various medical conditions. This comprehensive endeavor encompasses various stages, including target identification, preclinical studies, clinical trials, regulatory approval, and post-market surveillance. It involves multidisciplinary collaboration among scientists, researchers, clinicians, regulatory experts, and pharmaceutical companies to bring innovative therapies to market and address unmet medical needs.
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
3. Function of skin
• protects the underlying structures from injury
and from invasion by microbes
• contains sensory nerve endings that enable
discrimination of pain, temperature and touch
• is involved in the regulation of body
temperature.
4. Structure of the skin
• The skin is the largest organ in the body and has a
surface area of about 1.5–2 m2 in adults.
• In certain areas, it contains accessory structures:
glands, hair and nails.
• Anatomy of skin layers:
• 1) epidermis = is the thinner outer covering
• 2) dermis= is the thicker middle layer of the skin
composed connective tissues.
• 3) subcutaneous layer = composed of areolar tissue
and adipose (fat) tissue.
5.
6. Epidermis
• The epidermis is the outer and thinner region of the
skin.
• It is made up of stratified squamous epithelium
divided into several layers;
the deepest layer is the stratum basale
(germinative layer)
the most superficial layer is the stratum corneum.
7. • It varies in thickness, being thickest on the palms of
the hands and soles of the feet.
• There are several layers (strata) of cells in the
epidermis which extend from the deepest
germinative layer to the most superficial stratum
corneum (a thick horny layer)
8. • Epidermal cells originate in the germinative
layer and undergo gradual change as they
progress towards the skin surface.
• cytoplasm has been replaced by the fibrous
protein= keratin.
• Complete replacement of the epidermis takes
about a month.
9. Healthy epidermis depends upon three processes being
synchronised:
1) desquamation (shedding) of the keratinised cells
from the surface
2) effective keratinisation of cells approaching the
surface
3) continual cell division in the deeper layers with
newly formed cells being pushed upwards to the
surface.
10. • Skin colour is affected by various factors.
• Melanin, a dark pigment derived from the
amino acid tyrosine and secreted by
melanocytes in the deep germinative layer,
• is absorbed by surrounding epithelial cells.
The amount is genetically determined and
varies between different parts of the body,
11. Dermis
• The dermis, is a deeper and thicker region
than the epidermis, is composed of dense
irregular connective tissue.
• The upper layer of the dermis has fingerlike
projections called dermal papillae.
• Dermal papillae project into and anchor the
epidermis.
12. • In the overlying epidermis,dermal papillae cause
ridges, resulting in spiral pattern commonly known
as “fingerprints’.
• The function of the epidermal ridges is to Increase
friction to provide a better ‘grip’.
• Because they are unique to each person, fingerprint
and footprints can be used for identification
purposes.
13. The dermis layer contains following:
• blood and lymph vessels
• sensory nerve endings
• sweat glands and their ducts
• hairs, arrector pili muscles and sebaceous
glands.
14. Blood and lymph vessels.
• Arterioles form a fine network with capillary
branches supplying sweat glands, sebaceous glands,
hair follicles and the dermis. Lymph vessels form a
network throughout the dermis.
Sensory nerve endings.
• Sensory receptors (specialised nerve endings)
sensitive to touch, temperature, pressure and pain
are widely distributed in the dermis.
15.
16. The Appendages of the Skin:
The appendages of the skin are:
1) the nails
2) the hairs
3) the sweat glands
4) sebaceous glands with their ducts.
17. • A sweat gland is tubular. The tubule is coiled, particularly at its
origin within the dermis.
• These glands become active when a person is under stress.
Two types of sweat glands are present:
1) Apocrine
2) Eccrine
• Apocrine glands open into hair follicles in the anal
region, groin, and armpits. These glands begin to secrete at
puberty.
Sweat Glands
18. • Eccrine glands open onto the surface of the skin.
• They become active when a person is hot, helping to lower
body temperature as sweat evaporates.
• Therefore, sweat is a form of excretion. Ears contain
modified sweat glands, called Ceruminous glands, which
produce cerumen (earwax).
19.
20. Hairs
• These grow from hair follicles, downgrowths of
epidermal cells into the dermis or subcutaneous
tissue.
• At the base of the follicle is a cluster of cells called
the hair papilla or bulb.
21. Sebaceous glands
• These consist of secretory epithelial cells derived
from the same tissue as the hair follicles.
• They secrete an oily antimicrobial substance= sebum,
into the hair follicles and are present in the skin of all
parts of the body except the palms of the hands and
the soles of the feet.
22. Nails
• Human nails are equivalent to the claws,
horns and hooves of animals.
• Derived from the same cells as epidermis and
hair these are hard, horny keratin plates that
protect the tips of the fingers and toes.
23. Functions of the Skin
Immunological function
Secretory function
Thermoregulation function
Receptory function
Excretory function
Protective function