This document summarizes fat-soluble vitamins, focusing on vitamin A. It discusses that vitamin A exists in retinol, retinal, and retinoic acid forms. Retinol is stored in the liver and transported via retinol binding protein. Retinoic acid regulates gene expression by binding to nuclear receptors. Vitamin A is important for vision, epithelial tissue integrity, growth, reproduction, and acting as an antioxidant. Good sources are animal foods like liver, while plant foods like carrots contain provitamin A carotenoids.
Water soluble vitamin pyridoxine (vitamin B6) introduction, Chemistry of vitamin B6, Biochemical role of vitamin B6, active form of vitamin B 6 (pyridoxal phosphate) synthesis and their role, Recommended dietary allowance of vitamin B6, Dietary sources of vitamin B 6, Deficiency symptoms of Vitamin B6.
Water soluble vitamin pyridoxine (vitamin B6) introduction, Chemistry of vitamin B6, Biochemical role of vitamin B6, active form of vitamin B 6 (pyridoxal phosphate) synthesis and their role, Recommended dietary allowance of vitamin B6, Dietary sources of vitamin B 6, Deficiency symptoms of Vitamin B6.
Vitamins are substances that our body needs for proper grow and development.It is an essential nutrient that body cannot produce enough of and that's why it needs to get from food.
Vitamins are of 13 types and can be classified as Fat soluble vitamins (A,D,E & K ) and Water Soluble Vitamin (Vitamin-C & B-complex).
Small amounts of vitamins are required in the diet to promote growth, reproduction, and health. Vitamins A, D, E, and K are called the fat-soluble vitamins, because they are soluble in organic solvents and are absorbed and transported in a manner similar to that of fats.
Two biologically active forms
Flavin mononucleotide (FMN)
Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)
FAD and FMN are derived from riboFlavin (B2 = 2 ATP)
deficiency:
Cheilosis (inflammation of lips, scaling and fissures at corners of mouth)
Dermatitis
Glossitis (tongue smooth and purplish)
vit B3
Derived from tryptophan
Two biologically active forms
Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD+)
Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate (NADP+)
NAD derived from Niacin (B3 = 3ATP)
it gives a complete, simple and short information about Vitamin A like its chemistry, dietary sources, RDA, absorption, storage, transport, biochemical functions, deficiency manifestations and hypervitaminosis a
Vitamins are substances that our body needs for proper grow and development.It is an essential nutrient that body cannot produce enough of and that's why it needs to get from food.
Vitamins are of 13 types and can be classified as Fat soluble vitamins (A,D,E & K ) and Water Soluble Vitamin (Vitamin-C & B-complex).
Small amounts of vitamins are required in the diet to promote growth, reproduction, and health. Vitamins A, D, E, and K are called the fat-soluble vitamins, because they are soluble in organic solvents and are absorbed and transported in a manner similar to that of fats.
Two biologically active forms
Flavin mononucleotide (FMN)
Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)
FAD and FMN are derived from riboFlavin (B2 = 2 ATP)
deficiency:
Cheilosis (inflammation of lips, scaling and fissures at corners of mouth)
Dermatitis
Glossitis (tongue smooth and purplish)
vit B3
Derived from tryptophan
Two biologically active forms
Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD+)
Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate (NADP+)
NAD derived from Niacin (B3 = 3ATP)
it gives a complete, simple and short information about Vitamin A like its chemistry, dietary sources, RDA, absorption, storage, transport, biochemical functions, deficiency manifestations and hypervitaminosis a
Vitamins are organic nutrients that are required in small quantities for a variety of biochemical functions and which generally cannot be synthesized in the body and must be supplied by the diet.
vitamin classification with fat soluble and water soluble vitamins ,vitamin A sources ,digestion, absorption along with biochemical functions, Recommended Dietary Intake, Deficiency, Hypervitaminosis
It is a slide to teach students in universities about the basics of vitamin A, its benefits, metabolism, clinical indication, and also general information.
Multiple Choice Questions with Explanatory Answers on Chemistry of Carbohydrates for Medical, Biochemistry and Biology students - Chapter 1 of Multiple Choice Questions in Biochemistry by RC Gupta
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
Adv. biopharm. APPLICATION OF PHARMACOKINETICS : TARGETED DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMSAkankshaAshtankar
MIP 201T & MPH 202T
ADVANCED BIOPHARMACEUTICS & PHARMACOKINETICS : UNIT 5
APPLICATION OF PHARMACOKINETICS : TARGETED DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS By - AKANKSHA ASHTANKAR
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
ABDOMINAL TRAUMA in pediatrics part one.drhasanrajab
Abdominal trauma in pediatrics refers to injuries or damage to the abdominal organs in children. It can occur due to various causes such as falls, motor vehicle accidents, sports-related injuries, and physical abuse. Children are more vulnerable to abdominal trauma due to their unique anatomical and physiological characteristics. Signs and symptoms include abdominal pain, tenderness, distension, vomiting, and signs of shock. Diagnosis involves physical examination, imaging studies, and laboratory tests. Management depends on the severity and may involve conservative treatment or surgical intervention. Prevention is crucial in reducing the incidence of abdominal trauma in children.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of the physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar lead (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
6. Describe the flow of current around the heart during the cardiac cycle
7. Discuss the placement and polarity of the leads of electrocardiograph
8. Describe the normal electrocardiograms recorded from the limb leads and explain the physiological basis of the different records that are obtained
9. Define mean electrical vector (axis) of the heart and give the normal range
10. Define the mean QRS vector
11. Describe the axes of leads (hexagonal reference system)
12. Comprehend the vectorial analysis of the normal ECG
13. Determine the mean electrical axis of the ventricular QRS and appreciate the mean axis deviation
14. Explain the concepts of current of injury, J point, and their significance
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. Chapter 3, Cardiology Explained, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2214/
7. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Here is the updated list of Top Best Ayurvedic medicine for Gas and Indigestion and those are Gas-O-Go Syp for Dyspepsia | Lavizyme Syrup for Acidity | Yumzyme Hepatoprotective Capsules etc
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/kqbnxVAZs-0
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1. Fat-soluble Vitamins
R. C. Gupta
Professor and Head
Dept. of Biochemistry
National Institute of Medical Sciences
Jaipur, India
2. • Include vitamins A, D, E and K
• Are soluble in fat but insoluble in
water
• Are present in food in association
with dietary lipids
• Can be stored in the body and their
excessive intake can be toxic
Fat-soluble vitamins:
3. Vitamin A
Vitamin A is found only in animals though
its precursors are found in a variety of
plants
Chemically, it is made up of a b-ionone
ring attached to a polyene chain
4. Vitamin A occurs in three forms:
• Retinol (alcohol form)
• Retinal (aldehyde form)
• Retinoic acid (acid form)
6. All the double bonds in the polyene chain
have a trans-configuration
Hence, the naturally occurring vitamin A
is all-trans-vitamin A
7. Retinol may be esterified with a fatty acid
or phosphoric acid
The storage form of vitamin A is generally
retinyl palmitate
Some of the functions of vitamin A are
performed by retinyl phosphate
8. Vitamin A can be formed in our body from
its precursors (provitamins A)
The precursors are carotenes (or
carotenoids)
These are naturally occurring pigments
They are found in most yellow and green
fruits and vegetables
9. a-Carotene, b-carotene and g-carotene are
important precursors of vitamin A
a-Carotene
b-Carotene
g-Carotene
10. b-carotene is the most important precursor
b-Carotene is made up of two b-ionone rings
connected by an 18-carbon polyene chain
One molecule of b-carotene can be
converted into two molecules of retinal
11. b-Carotene is cleaved in the middle by
b-carotene dioxygenase and O2
Two molecules of retinal are formed
Bile salts facilitate this reaction
12. b-Carotene
[O ]2
b-Carotene dioxygenase,
bile salts
Retinol
NADPH + H
+
NADP+
Retinaldehyde reductase
(retinene reductase)
CH3
|
C
CH3
CH3
C
H
|
H C3
C
C
H
|
C
C
H
|
C
C
H
|
CH3 CH3
| | | |
H H H H H
| | | | |
H H H C3
C
C
H
|
C
C
|
C
C
H
|
C
C
|
C
C
H
|
CH3CH3
CH3
|
C
CH3
CH3
C
H
|
H C3
C
C
H
|
C
C
H
|
C
C
H
|
CH3 CH3
| | | |
H H H H
| | | |
H H H C3
CHO
OHC
C
C
|
C
C
H
|
C
C
|
C
C
H
|
CH3CH3
+
CH3
|
C
CH3
CH3
C
H
|
C
C
H
|
C
C
H
|
C
C
H
|
CH3
CH3
| |
H H
| |
CH OH2
Retinoic acid
Spontaneous
[O]
CH3
CH3
| | |
H H
| |
C
C
H
|
C C
C C
| |
C
C
H
|
CH3
CH3 CH3
COOH
H H
|
CH3
|
CH3
Retinal Retinal
13. Retinal is reduced to retinol by
retinaldehyde (retinine) reductase
Some retinal is spontaneously oxidized to
retinoic acid
Retinal and retinol are inter-convertible
However, retinoic acid cannot be converted
back into retinal
14. a-Carotene and g-carotene contain only
one b-ionone ring
Therefore, they can form only one retinal
molecule each
15. Carotenes are split into retinal which is
converted into retinol in the small intestine
Dietary retinyl esters are hydrolysed to
form retinol
Retinol is absorbed from the small intestine
Absorption, transport and storage
16. Retinol is taken up by the mucosal cells
It is esterified with fatty acids
Esterified retinol enters the lacteals and
reaches liver via circulation
17. Retinol is stored in the hepatic lipocytes
When needed, it is released from liver into
circulation
It is transported in blood by an a1-globulin,
retinol binding protein (RBP)
18. Circulating retinol is taken up by the cells
that need it
In the cells, it is bound to cellular retinol
binding protein (CRBP)
19. Retinoic acid formed in the intestine is also
absorbed
Retinoic acid is transported in circulation
by albumin
A small amount of carotenes may also be
absorbed
Carotenes are transported by chylomicrons
20. Vitamin A received its name from its
relationship with retina
But its functions are wide-ranging, and
extend beyond retina
Functions
21. Retinal and retinol are inter-convertible
They can also be converted into retinoic
acid
Hence, they can perform all the functions
of vitamin A
22. Some effects of vitamin A occur via
expression of genes
Regulation of gene expression is the
function of retinoic acid alone
Retinoic acid is present in cells as all-trans-
retinoic acid and 9-cis-retinoic acid
23. Both the forms of retinoic acid are
transported from cytosol to the nucleus
Cellular retinoic acid-binding protein
(CRABP) is their transporter within the cell
After reaching the nucleus, retinoic acids
bind to their specific receptors
24.
25. The receptor for all-trans-retinoic acid is
known as retinoic acid receptor (RAR)
Receptor for 9-cis-retinoic acid is known as
retinoid X receptor (RXR)
RAR and RXR bind their ligands and then
form RAR/RXR heterodimers
26. RAR/RXR heterodimer binds to a specific
sequence in DNA
This sequence is known as retinoic acid
response element (RARE)
Binding of RAR/RXR to RARE regulates
the expression of downstream genes
28. RXR can also form heterodimers with
thyroid hormone receptor and vitamin D
receptor
Therefore, vitamin A, vitamin D and
thyroid hormone can interact with each
other in regulating gene expression
29. Retinoic acid stimulates/inhibits the
transcription of specific genes
Thereby, it plays a role in cellular
differentiation
Several functions of vitamin A result from
its effect on cellular differentiation
30. Functions of vitamin A are related to:
• Reproduction
• Growth and differentiation
• Integrity of epithelial tissues
• Vision
• Anti-oxidant role
• Anti-carcinogenic role
31. Reproduction
Vitamin A deficiency has been observed
to impair reproductive function in some
animals
This function is probably mediated by
control of expression of certain genes by
retinoic acid
32. Growth and differentiation
Vitamin A is required for normal growth
and differentiation of tissues
Formation of bones and soft tissues is
impaired in animals deficient in vitamin A
Vitamin A is probably required for the
synthesis of mucopolysaccharides and
glycoproteins in various tissues
33. Integrity of epithelial tissues
Vitamin A maintains the integrity of epithelial
tissues
Epithelial tissues of eyes, lungs, gastro-
intestinal tract and genitourinary tract
become dry and keratinized in vitamin A
deficiency
34. Vision
Role of vitamin A in vision was shown by
Morton and Wald
Retina contains two types of photo-
receptor cells
These are known as rod cells and cone
cells
35. Rod cells are required for dim light vision
Cone cells are required for bright light
vision and for perception of colours
Vitamin A is essential for the functioning
of rod cells as well as cone cells
37. Rod cells contain a pigment, rhodopsin
(visual purple)
This is a conjugated protein made up of
opsin and 11-cis-retinal
Opsin is a protein and 11-cis-retinal is an
isomer of all-trans-retinal
38. Rhodopsin molecules are present in large
numbers in rod cells
When light strikes rod cells, 11-cis-retinal is
converted into all-trans-retinal
Rhodopsin
39. Conformation of all-trans-retinal is such
that it cannot bind with opsin
Therefore, opsin and all-trans-retinal
dissociate
A number of transient intermediates are
formed before their dissociation
40. On moving from dim light to bright light, all
rhodopsin molecules are rapidly dissociated
When the person moves back into dim light,
he cannot see until rhodopsin is re-formed
For this, all-trans-retinal has to be
isomerized to 11-cis-retinal
41. The enzyme for isomerization of retinal is
present only in liver
All-trans-retinal is first reduced to all-trans-
retinol in retina
All-trans-retinol is released into circulation
42. Circulating all-trans-retinol is taken up by
liver
It is isomerized to 11-cis-retinol
11-cis-Retinol is released into circulation
43. Retina takes up the circulating 11-cis-
retinol and oxidizes it to 11-cis-retinal
11-cis-Retinal combines with opsin to form
rhodospin
This sequence of reactions is known as
visual cycle
44. Rhodopsin
Light Light
Bathorhodopsin Lumirhodopsin
Metarhodopsin I
Metarhodopsin II
Opsin
All- -retinaltrans
All- -retinoltrans
All- -retinoltrans
II- -Retinalcis
II- -Retinolcis
II- -Retinolcis
NADPH + H
+
Retinine reductase
NADP+
via
circulation
via
circulation
Retinol isomerase
RETINA
LIVER
Light
Light
Light
45. The time taken for regeneration of rhodospin
is known as dark adaptation time
This depends upon vitamin A content of liver
When liver contains adequate stores of
vitamin A, dark adaptation time is short
In vitamin A deficiency, dark adaptation time
is prolonged
46. Mechanism of vision
Rhodopsin is a trans-membrane protein
When photons strike it, they convert 11-
cis-retinal into 11-trans-retinal (all-trans-
retinal)
As a result, rhodopsin molecule is
activated (photo-excited)
48. The photo-excited form of rhodopsin is
probably meta-rhodopsin II
Another membrane-bound protein, trans-
ducin is present in vicinity of rhodopsin
Transducin belongs to the family of G-
proteins
49. Transducin is made up of three subunits -
a-subunit, b-subunit and g-subunit
a-Subunit has a site that can bind GDP or
GTP
Normally, this site is occupied by GDP
50. When rhodopsin is photo-excited, it
displaces GDP by GTP in transducin
The a-subunit containing GTP dissociates
from the b- and g-subunits
It binds to and activates the enzyme,
cGMP phospho-diesterase
51. Active cGMP phospho-diesterase converts
cGMP into GMP
Decreased cGMP concentration affects
cation-specific channels in the rod cell
membrane
52. Rod cell membrane contains a number of
cation-specific channels
Normally, these are kept open by cGMP
Open channels permit continuous influx of
sodium ions into the rod cell
54. Decrease in cGMP concentration leads to
closure of cation-specific channels
Sodium ions accumulate outside the rod
cell
This causes hyperpolarization of the rod
cell membrane
55. Rhodopsin
Light Photo-excited
rhodopsin
GTP-a-subunit b- and g-subunit
cGMP GMP
Inactive cGMP
phosphodiesterase
Active cGMP
phosphodiesterase
Open cation-specific
channels
Closed cation-specific
channels
Normal
membrane
Hyperpolarized
membrane
GDP-transducin GTP-transducin
56. Hyperpolarization generates a nerve
impulse
The nerve impulse is transmitted to
visual cortex of brain
Visual cortex perceives the image
57. The a-subunit of transducin possesses
intrinsic GTPase activity
Therefore, GTP bound to the a-subunit is
slowly hydrolysed into GDP
When GTP is converted into GDP, a-
subunit dissociates from cGMP phospho-
diesterase
58. The a-subunit re-associates with b- and g-
subunits
Transducin containing GDP is re-formed
cGMP phospho-diesterase becomes
inactive
The chain of events generating the nerve
impulse is terminated
59. Vitamin A is required for bright light vision
also
Bright light vision is the function of cone
cells
Cone cells contain some photo-sensitive
proteins
60. Photo-sensitive proteins in cone cells are
porphyrinopsin, iodopsin and cyanopsin
These are sensitive to red, green and blue
light respectively
Prosthetic group is 11-cis-retinal in each of
these but the protein part is different
61. Light of a specific colour photo-excites
porphyrinopsin, iodopsin or cyanopsin
A nerve impulse is, then, generated in the
same way as in rod cells
62. A given cone cell contains only one of the
three photo-sensitive proteins
It can perceive only one particular colour
An inherited absence of, or defect in, these
proteins causes colour blindness
63. b-Carotene acts as an anti-oxidant
It prevents lipid peroxidation at low oxygen
tension
Anti-oxidant role
64. Some epidemiological studies have shown
a relationship between certain cancers and
low intake of vitamin A or carotenes
However, this relationship is not yet
experimentally and clinically confirmed
Anti-carcinogenic role
65. Preformed vitamin A is present only in
animal foods
Good sources are fish, liver, meat, eggs,
milk and milk products
Sources
69. Requirement
Vitamin A is present in food in several
different forms
These forms differ in their vitamin A
activity
Therefore, it is not possible to express the
requirement in terms of actual weight
70. Relative vitamin A activities of different
compounds were compared in rats
The activities were expressed in terms of
international units (IU)
71. One IU is the activity present in:
• 0.3 µg of retinol or
• 0.344 µg of retinyl acetate or
• 0.6 µg of b-carotene
72. Daily requirements were expressed in IU for
a long time
Later, it was found that absorption/utilization
of carotenes were less efficient in man
Therefore, vitamin A activities were
converted into retinol equivalents (RE)
73. One RE is the activity present in:
• 1 µg of retinol or
• 6 µg of b-carotene or
• 12 µg of other carotenes
74. The daily requirement of vitamin A in
terms of IU and RE is:
IU/day RE/day
Infants 1,500-2,000 350
Children 2,000-4,000 400-600
Adult men 5,000 600
Adult women 4,000 600
Pregnant women 5,000 800
Lactating women 6,000 950
75. Deficiency of vitamin A can arise from:
• Inadequate intake
• Inadequate absorption
• Poor conversion of carotenes into retinal
Zinc deficiency may impair the mobilization
of vitamin A from liver
Deficiency
76. The clinical manifestations of
deficiency are:
• Xerophthalmia
• Keratomalacia
• Nyctalopia
• Blindness
• Follicular hyperkeratosis
• Susceptibility to infections
77. Xerophthalmia
The lacrimal glands become keratinized,
and stop secreting lacrimal fluid
The eyes become dry
Bitot’s spots (small, opaque spots) may
appear on cornea
80. Nyctalopia
Initially, dark adaptation time is prolonged
This may be the earliest indication of
deficiency
Finally, the ability to see in dim light is
completely lost
This is known as nyctalopia or night
blindness
81. Blindness
In severe and prolonged deficiency,
there is total loss of vision
Blindness occurs due to functional
and structural changes in the eyes
85. Hypervitaminosis A is characterized by:
• Rough skin
• Hair loss
• Anorexia
• Weight loss
• Headache
• Vertigo
• Irritability
• Hyperaesthesia
• Hepatosplenomegaly
• Liver damage etc
86. Vitamin D
Vitamin D prevents rickets (rachitis), a
deficiency disease
It is also known as anti-rachitic factor
or anti-rachitic vitamin
87. Several compounds possess vitamin D
activity
The most important are:
• Vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol)
• Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol)
88. Vitamin D2 is formed from provitamin D2
(ergosterol) on exposure to ultraviolet light
Vitamin D3 is formed from provitamin
D3 (7-dehydrocholesterol) on exposure to
ultraviolet light
90. Ergosterol occurs in plants e.g. ergot and
yeast
7-Dehydrocholesterol occurs in animals
including human beings
91. 7-Dehydrocholesterol is formed from
cholesterol
7-Dehydrocholesterol present in skin is
converted into cholecalciferol on
exposure to sunlight
92. Intestinal absorption of calcium and
phosphorus
Renal tubular absorption of calcium
Mineralization of bones
EMB-RCG
Functions
93. Vitamin D increases intestinal absorption
of calcium
Absorption of phosphorus is increased
secondarily
Vitamin D increases renal tubular
absorption of calcium, and decreases that
of phosphorus
94. Vitamin D is required for mineralization of
bones
Bone formation is a continuous and
dynamic process
Calcium salts are continuously deposited
into bones by osteoblasts
They are resorbed from bones by
osteoclasts
95.
96. Deposition exceeds resorption in growing
age, leading to skeletal growth
Deposition and resorption are balanced in
adult life, leading to remodeling of bones
Vitamin D is required for bone growth as
well as remodeling
97. Thus, the main functions of vitamin D are:
• Regulation of calcium metabolism
• Mineralization of bones
However, these functions are not
performed by vitamin D itself
98. Vitamin D is first hydroxylated at C25 to
form 25-hydroxycholecalciferol
25-Hydroxycholecalciferol is hydroxylated
at C1 to form 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol
The first hydroxylation occurs in liver and
the second in the kidneys
99. 1,25-Dihydroxycholecalciferol (1,25-DHCC)
is also known as calcitriol
1,25-DHCC is the metabolically active form
of vitamin D
1,25-DHCC acts as a hormone; hence
vitamin D is regarded as a prohormone
100. Mechanism of action of calcitriol is similar
to that of steroid hormones
Vitamin D receptors (VDRs) are located
inside the cells
VDR and RXR form a dimer
Calcitriol binds to VDR in the target cells
102. Calcitriol-VDR-RXR complex binds to
vitamin D response element (VDRE) in DNA
This increases the transcription and
translation of certain genes
The gene products perform the actual
functions
104. Sources
Plant foods are poor sources of vitamin D
Though ergocalciferol is present in some
plants, its intestinal absorption is poor
Cholecalciferol is the major dietary form
of vitamin D
106. An important source of vitamin D is its
endogenous synthesis
If sunshine is good and exposure to
sunlight is adequate, enough vitamin D is
synthesized in the body
107. Requirement
Anti-rachitic activity of different forms of
vitamin D is different
Hence, the requirement is expressed in
international units (IU)
One IU is the activity present in 0.025 µg
of cholecalciferol
108. The requirement is 400 IU/day irrespective
of age and sex
Endogenous synthesis can meet up to
90% of the requirement
109. Deficiency
Deficiency of vitamin D can occur
due to:
• Inadequate intake
• Inadequate absorption
• Inadequate exposure to sunlight
110. Two distinct syndromes arise
from deficiency of vitamin D:
• Rickets in childhood
• Osteomalacia in adult life
117. Vertebral deformities
Kyphosis, lordosis or scoliosis can occur
Kyphosis is forward bending of vertebral
column
Lordosis is backward bending of
vertebral column
Scoliosis is lateral bending of vertebral
column
120. The leg bones may become
curved under the weight of
the body (bowlegs)
The two knees may touch
each other while standing
erect (knock knees)
Bowlegs and knock knees
121. Enlarged wrists and knees
Wrists and knees may be enlarged due
to overgrowth of epiphyses of the long
bones
123. Some changes in serum and urine
chemistry are also seen
Serum calcium and inorganic phosphorus
are decreased
Serum alkaline phosphatase is increased
124. Hypocalcaemia increases the secretion of
parathormone
Parathormone decreases the urinary
excretion of calcium, and increases that
of phosphorus
126. Aches and pains may occur in bones in
osteomalacia
Susceptibility to fractures is increased
Changes in serum and urine chemistry are
similar to those in rickets
127. Toxicity
Excessive intake of vitamin D may
cause hypervitaminosis D
This occurs after prolonged intake of
large doses of vitamin D in pharma-
cological form
Serum calcium is raised in hyper-
vitaminosis D
129. Calcification may occur in soft tissues e.g.
arteries, bronchi, muscles, kidneys etc
Stones may be formed in the kidneys
130. Vitamin E
Vitamin E is sometimes described as anti-
sterility vitamin
But its anti-sterility function is seen only in
some animals and not in human beings
131. Vitamin E activity is present in several
tocopherols
The most important are a-, b-, g- and d-
tocopherols
133. a-Tocopherol is the most abundant
tocopherol, and is taken as the standard
The official reference standard is synthetic
DL-a-tocopherol acetate
Activity present in 1 mg of this compound
is taken as one international unit (IU)
134. The vitamin E activity of 1 mg of naturally-
occurring D-a-tocopherol is 1.5 IU
Vitamin E activities of other tocopherols
are much lower
135. Functions
The most important function of vitamin E
in human beings is as an anti-oxidant
Vitamin E is readily oxidizable
It prevents the oxidation of other, less
oxidizable, compounds
136. Vitamin E prevents the oxidation
of other antioxidants such as:
• Carotenes
• Vitamin A
• Vitamin C
138. Vitamin E prevents the peroxidation of
unsaturated fatty acids
This protects the tissues against the
harmful effects of lipid peroxides
139. Vitamin E protects the erythrocyte
membrane from oxidants
This makes erythrocytes resistant to
haemolysis
Vitamin E protects the pulmonary tissue
from atmospheric oxidants
140. Sources of vitamin E
Vegetable oils Soya bean Corn
FruitsNuts Green leafy vegetables
141. Infants 4-5 IU/day
Children 7-12 IU/day
Adult men 15 IU/day
Adult women 12 IU/day
Pregnant and
lactating women 15 IU/day
Requirement
142. Requirement of vitamin E is related to the
intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids
(PUFA)
An intake of 1.2 IU of vitamin E per gm of
PUFA in diet will prevent vitamin E
deficiency
143. Deficiency
Deficiency of vitamin E is uncommon
because of its widespread distribution in
foods
Moreover, the foods which are rich in
PUFA, e.g. vegetable oils, are also rich in
vitamin E
144. Deficiency of vitamin E may occur in:
• Severely undernourished children
• Premature infants fed on artificial milk
not containing vitamin E
146. Vitamin K
Vitamin K activity is present in compounds
having 2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone nucleus
Two such natural compounds are phyllo-
quinone (vitamin K1) and menaquinone
(vitamin K2)
The former occurs in plants and the latter in
bacteria
148. Some synthetic compounds having
vitamin K activity are also available
These are menadione, sodium menadiol
diphosphate and menadione sodium
bisulphite
These three are water-soluble
149. O
O O
O
O–P=O
׀
–CH3 –CH3 –CH3
SO3Na
O–P=O
ONa
׀
׀
׀
ONa
ONa
ONa
Sodium menadiol
diphosphate
Menadione
sodium bisulphite
Menadione
150. Functions
Vitamin K is essential for normal
coagulation of blood
Plasma levels of several coagulation
factors are decreased in vitamin K
deficiency
These include prothrombin, proconvertin,
Christmas factor and Stuart-Prower Factor
151. All these coagulation factors are proteins
They require some post-translational
modification for their activation
Vitamin K is required for the post-
translational modification
152. Prothrombin is synthesized in liver as an
inactive precursor, pre-prothrombin
Pre-prothrombin is converted into pro-
thrombin by carboxylation of its glutamate
residues
Hydroquinone (reduced) form of vitamin K
is required for the carboxylation reaction
153. During hydroxylation, hydroquinone form of
vitamin K is converted into 2,3-epoxide form
Hydroquinone form is regenerated by 2,3-
epoxide reductase and vitamin K reductase
A sulphydryl compound is required in the
reaction catalysed by 2,3-epoxide reductase
154. COOH
|
CH2
|
CH2
|| ||
— N — CH — C —
Glutamate residue
H O
| ||
— N — CH — C—
g-Carboxyglutamate residue
H O
Vitamin K-dependent
carboxylase
H O2
Vitamin K
(hydroquinone form)
CO + O2 2
OH
|
—CH3
—R
|
OH
Vitamin K
(2,3-epoxide form)
O
||
||
—CH3
—R
O
O
Vitamin K
reductase
NADP+
NADPH + H
+
2,3-Epoxide reductase
Dicoumarol
R
SH
SH
–
|
CH2
|
HOOC COOH
CH
R
S
+ H O2
Vitamin K
(quinone form)
—CH3
—R
||
||
O
O
S
155. At normal pH, the carboxyl groups
attached to the g-carbon of carboxy-
glutamate residues are ionized
The two negatively charged carboxyl
groups act as a Ca+2-binding site
CH
CH2
CHN
H
C
O
COOOOC
156. Thus, the function of vitamin K is to create
Ca++-binding sites on prothrombin
As a result of this, prothrombin become
biologically active
Similar sites are probably created by
vitamin K on Factors VII, IX and X also
157. Sources
Green leafy vegetables (alfalfa, spinach,
cabbage etc) are rich in vitamin K
Nuts, cauliflower and peas are good
sources
Small amounts are present in liver, milk
and eggs
159. A very important source of vitamin K is
bacterial synthesis in the intestine
Intestinal bacteria synthesize a good deal
of vitamin K which is available to the host
160. Requirement
Exact requirement is unknown as intestinal
bacteria provide sufficient vitamin K
Vitamin K supplements are required only
when:
• Intestinal bacteria are destroyed
• Fat absorption is impaired
The requirement is probably less than 0.1
mg/day
161. Deficiency
Deficiency of vitamin K disturbs
coagulation of blood
Slight injury can cause prolonged
bleeding in vitamin K deficiency
Diagnosis can be made by measuring
prothrombin time
162. Prothrombin time is prolonged in vitamin K
deficiency
Prothrombin time may be prolonged in
liver damage also
This is due to inability of liver to synthesize
prothrombin
163. Distinction between vitamin K deficiency
and liver damage can be made by
parenteral administration of vitamin K
Prothrombin time returns to normal in
subjects deficient in vitamin K but not in
patients with liver damage