Tetanus is caused by Clostridium tetani bacteria. The bacteria produces a neurotoxin called tetanospasmin that causes painful muscle spasms. It enters the body through wounds and is transmitted in soil and animal feces. Symptoms include lockjaw and muscle rigidity. Treatment involves antibiotics, antitoxin antibodies, and supportive care. Immunization with tetanus toxoid vaccine provides effective prevention. Neonatal tetanus remains an issue in developing countries where umbilical cord cutting practices introduce the bacteria.
The information about Tetanus is a basic content intended to share Students of Graduate and postgraduate in Life Sciences.
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The information about Tetanus is a basic content intended to share Students of Graduate and postgraduate in Life Sciences.
The up loader has no Commercial interests
Clostridium tetani (tetanus) - causes, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, pathology. Tetanus is a toxin-mediated disease. The infectious agent of the disease is a neurotoxin produced by gram positive-anaerobic spore-forming organisms, Clostridium tetani. Movement of our voluntary muscles is controlled by our central nervous system. This animation describes the process of infection with Clostridium tetani and how the toxin it releases interrupts nervous control of our muscles, leading to tetanus. This loss of muscle control causes the convulsive muscle spasms typical of tetanus, which are so severe they can cause bone fractures and dislocations.infection of tetanus occurs when bacteria contaminates the wound and produce the exotoxin. The contaminated-wounds with deep puncture trauma and devitalized tissue, are at high risk for developing tetanus.
There is no person to person transmission for tetanus.
Three overlapping clinical pictures are shown, which are generalized, neonatal, and localized.
Complications include laryngospasm, fractures, arrhythmias, nosocomial-hospitalizations. Heroin users are at increased risk of tetanus.
Tetanus an neurological disease characterized by an acute onset of hypertonia, painful muscular contractions (usually of the muscles of the jaw and neck), and generalized muscle spasms without other apparent medical causes.
Tetanus, Lock Jaw, Opisthotonus, Tetanus Immunoglobulins, Immunization, Cephalic Tetanus. A much feared topic among residents explained in a simple way.
Tetanus |Causes | Signs and symptoms| All aspects - medical discussion martinshaji
this is a brief study regarding almost all aspects of tetanus .Tetanus is a condition caused by a nerve toxin produced by the bacteria Clostridium tetani, which may also cause fatal condition too.
please comment
thank you
Clostridium tetani (tetanus) - causes, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, pathology. Tetanus is a toxin-mediated disease. The infectious agent of the disease is a neurotoxin produced by gram positive-anaerobic spore-forming organisms, Clostridium tetani. Movement of our voluntary muscles is controlled by our central nervous system. This animation describes the process of infection with Clostridium tetani and how the toxin it releases interrupts nervous control of our muscles, leading to tetanus. This loss of muscle control causes the convulsive muscle spasms typical of tetanus, which are so severe they can cause bone fractures and dislocations.infection of tetanus occurs when bacteria contaminates the wound and produce the exotoxin. The contaminated-wounds with deep puncture trauma and devitalized tissue, are at high risk for developing tetanus.
There is no person to person transmission for tetanus.
Three overlapping clinical pictures are shown, which are generalized, neonatal, and localized.
Complications include laryngospasm, fractures, arrhythmias, nosocomial-hospitalizations. Heroin users are at increased risk of tetanus.
Tetanus an neurological disease characterized by an acute onset of hypertonia, painful muscular contractions (usually of the muscles of the jaw and neck), and generalized muscle spasms without other apparent medical causes.
Tetanus, Lock Jaw, Opisthotonus, Tetanus Immunoglobulins, Immunization, Cephalic Tetanus. A much feared topic among residents explained in a simple way.
Tetanus |Causes | Signs and symptoms| All aspects - medical discussion martinshaji
this is a brief study regarding almost all aspects of tetanus .Tetanus is a condition caused by a nerve toxin produced by the bacteria Clostridium tetani, which may also cause fatal condition too.
please comment
thank you
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
2. Brief history of disease
5th
century BC: Hippocrates first described the disease
1884: Carle and Rattone discovered the etiology (cause/origin
of disease)
Produced tetanus by injecting pus from a fatal human case
Nicolaier was able to do the same by injecting soil samples into
animals
1889: Kitasato isolated the organism from human victim,
showed that it could produce disease when injected into
animals. Reported that toxin could be neutralized by
specific antibodies.
1897: Nocard demonstrated the protective effect of
passively transferred antitoxin used in WWI
1924: Descombey developed tetanus toxoid for active
immunization used in WWII
3. Distribution
In developing countries, neonatal tetanus is a
leading cause of neonatal mortality, accounting
for over 250,000 deaths annually.
It’s often called the silent killer, since
infants often die before their birth is
recorded.
4. 1950 1960 19901970 1980 2000
<5 5-14 15-24 25-39 40+
A sharp decrease after
tetanus toxoid was
introduced into routine
childhood
immunization in the
late 1940s.
All time low in 2002 –
25 cases (0.4 cases in
100,000 population)
* Affects those over
the age of 40 the
most is taken to
mean that waning
immunity is a
significant risk factor.
5. Causative agent
Clostridium tetani
Left. Stained pus from a mixed anaerobic infection. At least three
different clostridia are apparent.
Right. Electron micrograph of vegetative Clostridium tetani cells.
6. Morphology & Physiology
Relatively large, Gram-positive, rod-shaped
bacteria
Spore-forming, anaerobic.
Found in soil, especially heavily-manured soils,
and in the intestinal tracts and feces of various
animals.
Strictly fermentative mode of metabolism.
7. Virulence & Pathogenicity
Not pathogenic to
humans and animals
by invasive infection
but by the production
of a potent protein
toxin
tetanus toxin or
tetanospasmin
The second exotoxin
produced is tetanolysin
—function not known.
8. Tetanus toxin
Produced when spores germinate and vegetative cells grow
after gaining access to wounds. The organism multiplies
locally and symptoms appear remote from the infection
site.
One of the three most poisonous substances known on a
weight basis, the other two being the toxins of botulism
and diphtheria.
Tetanus toxin is produced in vitro in amounts up to 5 to 10%
of the bacterial weight.
Estimated lethal human dose of Tetanospamin = 2.5
nanograms/kg body
Because the toxin has a specific affinity for nervous tissue,
it is referred to as a neurotoxin. The toxin has no known
useful function to C. tetani.
9. Initially binds to peripheral
nerve terminals
Transported within the
axon and across synaptic
junctions until it reaches
the central nervous
system.
Becomes rapidly fixed to
gangliosides at the
presynaptic inhibitory
motor nerve endings, then
taken up into the axon by
endocytosis.
Blocks the release of inhibitory neurotransmitters
(glycine and gamma-amino butyric acid) across the
synaptic cleft, which is required to check the nervous
impulse.
If nervous impulses cannot be checked by normal
inhibitory mechanisms, it leads to unopposed muscular
contraction and spasms that are characteristic of tetanus.
10. Methods of transmission
C. tetani can live for years as spores in animal
feces and soil. As soon as it enters the human
body through a major or minor wound and the
conditions are anaerobic, the spores germinate
and release the toxins.
Tetanus may follow burns, deep puncture
wounds, ear or dental infections, animal bites,
abortion.
Only the growing bacteria can produce the toxin.
It is the only vaccine-preventable disease that is
infectious but not contagious from person to
person.
11. Symptoms
Tetanic seizures (painful, powerful bursts
of muscle contraction)
if the muscle spasms affect the larynx or chest
wall, they may cause asphyxiation
stiffness of jaw (also called lockjaw)
stiffness of abdominal and back muscles
contraction of facial muscles
fast pulse
fever
sweating
12. The back muscles are
more powerful, thus
creating the arc backward
“Oposthotonus” by Sir
Charles Bell, 1809.
Baby has neonatal
tetanus with complete
rigidity
13. Types of tetanus:
local, cephalic, generalized, neonatal
Incubation period: 3-21 days, average 8 days.
Uncommon types:
Local tetanus: persistent muscle contractions in the
same anatomic area as the injury, which will however
subside after many weeks; very rarely fatal; milder than
generalized tetanus, although it could precede it.
Cephalic tetanus: occurs with ear infections or
following injuries of the head; facial muscles contractions.
14. Most common types:
Generalized tetanus
- descending pattern: lockjaw stiffness of neck difficulty
swallowing rigidity of abdominal and back muscles.
- Spasms continue for 3-4 weeks, and recovery can last for
months
- Death occurs when spasms interfere with respiration.
Neonatal tetanus:
- Form of generalized tetanus that occurs in newborn infants
born without protective passive immunity because the
mother is not immune.
- Usually occurs through infection of the unhealed umbilical
stump, particularly when the stump is cut with an unsterile
instrument.
15. Methods of diagnosis
Based on the patient’s account and physical findings that
are characteristic of the disease.
Diagnostic studies generally are of little value, as cultures
of the wound site are negative for C. tetani two-thirds of
the time.
When the culture is positive, it confirms the diagnosis of
tetanus
Tests that may be performed include the following:
Culture of the wound site (may be negative even if
tetanus is present)
Tetanus antibody test
Other tests may be used to rule out meningitis, rabies,
strychnine poisoning, or other diseases with similar
symptoms.
16. Clinical treatment
If treatment is not sought early, the disease is
often fatal.
The bacteria are killed with antibiotics, such as
penicillin or tetracycline; further toxin production
is thus prevented.
The toxin is neutralized with shots of tetanus
immune globulin, TIG.
Other drugs may be given to provide sedation,
relax the muscles and relieve pain.
Due to the extreme potency of the toxin,
immunity does not result after the disease.
17. Method of prevention - immunization
A person recovering from tetanus should begin active
immunization with tetanus toxoid (Td) during
convalescence.
The tetanus toxoid is a formalin-inactivated toxin, with an
efficiency of approx. 100%.
The DTaP vaccine includes tetanus, diphteria and pertussis
toxoids; it is routinely given in the US during childhood.
After 7 years of age, only Td needs to be administered.
Because the antitoxin levels decrease over time, booster
immunization shots are needed every 10 years.
18. What else can be done?
Remove and destroy the source of the toxin
through surgical exploration and cleaning of the
wound (debridement).
Bedrest with a nonstimulating environment (dim
light, reduced noise, and stable temperature) may
be recommended.
Sedation may be necessary to keep the affected
person calm.
Respiratory support with oxygen, endotracheal
tube, and mechanical ventilation may be necessary.
19. RESOURCES
ENCYCLOPEDIA
Breslow, Lester. (2002). “Tetanus.” Encyclopedia of Public Health. New York :
Macmillan Reference USA/Gale Group Thomson Learning.
Lederberg, J. (2003) Clostridia. Encyclopedia of Microbiology. New York, NY: Academic
Press. 1, 834-839.
Olendorf, D., et al. (1999).“Tetanus.” The Gale encyclopedia of medicine. Detroit : Gale
Research.
ARTICLES
Ahnhert-Hilger, G., Bigalke, H. (1995). “Molecular Aspects of Tetanus and Botulinum
Neurotoxin Poisoning.” Progress in Neurobiology. 46, 83-96.
Center for Disease and Control. (2001). “Diptheria, Tetanus, Pertussis Vaccines: What
you need to know.” Vaccine Information Statement 42 U.S.C. §300aa-26.
Clark, D. (2003). “Common acute hand infections.” American Family Physician. 68,
2167-2177.
Humeau, Y., et al. (2000). “How botulism and tetanus neurotoxins block
neurotransmitter release.” Biochimie. 82, 427,446.
Zamula, Evelyn. (1996). “Adults need Tetanus Shots, too.” FDA Consumer Magazine.
http://www.fda.gov/fdac/features/696_tet.html
WEBSITES
Todar, K. (2002). The Pathogenic Clostridia. Bacteriology 330 Home page.
http://www.bact.wisc.edu/Bact330/lecturetetbot
Clostridium tetani. (2003). http://www.historique.net/microbes/tetani.html
Tetanus. http://www.med.utah.edu/healthinfo/pediatric/Infectious/tetanus.htm
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/tetanus.html
http://nfid.org/powerof10/section2/factsheet-tetanus.html
http://www.who.int/vaccines/en/neotetanus.shtml
http://www.who.int/vaccines-surveillance/StatsAndGraphs.htm
Editor's Notes
Most clostridia will not grow under aerobic conditions and vegetative cells are killed by exposure to O2, but their spores are able to survive long periods of exposure to air.
Tetanospasmin initially binds to peripheral nerve terminals. It is transported within the axon and across synaptic junctions until it reaches the central nervous system. There it becomes rapidly fixed to gangliosides at the presynaptic inhibitory motor nerve endings, and is taken up into the axon by endocytosis. The effect of the toxin is to block the release of inhibitory neurotransmitters (glycine and gamma-amino butyric acid) across the synaptic cleft, which is required to check the nervous impulse. If nervous impulses cannot be checked by normal inhibitory mechanisms, it produces the generalized muscular spasms characteristic of tetanus. Tetanospasmin appears to act by selective cleavage of a protein component of synaptic vesicles, synaptobrevin II, and this prevents the release of neurotransmitters by the cells.