This document compares polling/interrupt-driven I/O and DMA, describing their operations and overheads. It then explains that DMA uses a controller to transfer large blocks of data between I/O devices and memory without continuous processor intervention, reducing overhead. The DMA controller is programmed by the processor and raises interrupts to signal transfer completion. It allows high-speed transfer and sharing of bus access through techniques like cycle stealing and arbitration.

1. DMA Versus
Polling or Interrupt Driven I/O
• Polling and Interrupt driven I/O concentrates on data
transfer between the processor and I/O devices.
• An instruction to transfer (mov datain,R0) only occurs
after the processor determines that the I/O device is
ready
– Either by polling a status flag in the device interface or
– Waits for the device to send an interrupt request.
• Considerable overhead is incurred, because several
program instructions must be executed for each data
word transferred.
• Instructions are needed to increment memory address
and keeping track of work count.
• With interrupts, additional overhead associated with
saving and restoring the program counter and other state
information.

2. Direct Memory Access (DMA)
• To transfer large blocks of data at high
speed, an alternative approach is used.
• Blocks of data are transferred between an
external device and the main memory,
without continuous intervention by the
processor.

3. DMA Controller
• DMA controller is part of the I/O interface.
• Performs the functions that would normally
be carried out by the processor when
access main memory. For each word
transferred, it provides the memory
address and all the bus signals that control
data transfer.

4. DMA Controller
• Although DMAC can transfer data without
intervention by the processor, it’s operation must
be under the control of a program executed by
the processor.
• To initiate the transfer of a block of data, the
processor sends the starting address, the
number of words in the block, and direction of
the transfer. Once information is received, the
DMAC proceeds to perform the requested
operation. When the entire block has been
transferred, the controller informs the processor
by raising an interrupt signal.

5. Processor Main Memory
Disk
Printer Keyboard
DMA
Controller
Disk
Use of DMA Controllers in a Computer
System
Network
Interface
Disk/DMA
Controller

6. How is OS involved
• I/O operations are always performed by the OS in
response to a request from an application program.
• OS is also responsible for suspending the execution of
one program and starting another.
– OS puts the program that requested the transfer in the Blocked
state,
– initiates the DMA operation,
– starts execution of another program.
• When the transfer is complete, the DMA controller
informs the processor by sending an interrupt request.
– OS puts suspended program in the Runnable state so that it can
be selected by the scheduler to continue execution.

7. Registers in a DMA Interface
Status and Control
Starting Address
Word Count
31 30 1 0
IRQ
IE
Done
R / W’

8. Cycle Stealing
• Requests by DMA devices for using the bus are alwas
given higher priority than processor requests.
• Among different DMA devices, top priority is given to
high-speed peripherals (disks, high-speed network
interface, graphics display device)
• Since the processor originates most memory access
cycles, it is often stated that DMA steals memory cycles
from the processor (cycle stealing).
• If DMA controller is given exclusive access to the main
memory to transfer a block of data without interruption,
this is called block or burst mode..

9. Buffers and Arbitration
• Most DMACs have a data storage buffer –
network interfaces receive data from main
memory at bus speed, send data onto
network at network speed.
• Bus Arbitration is needed to resolve
conflicts with more than one device (2
DMACs or DMA and processor, etc..) try
to use the bus to access main memory.

10. Bus Arbitration
• Bus Master – the device that is allowed to
initiate bus transfers on the bus at any
given time. When the current master
relinquishes control, another device can
acquire this status.
• Bus Arbitration – the process by which the
next device to become bus master is
selected and bus mastership is transferred
to it.

11. Arbitration Approaches
• Centralized – a single arbiter performs the
arbitration.
• Distributed – all devices participate in the
selection of the next bus master.

12. Centralized Arbitration
• Bus arbiter may be processor or a
separate unit connected to the bus.
Processor
DMA
Controller
1
DMA
Controller
2BG1 BG2
BR
BBSY

13. Distributed Arbitration
• No central arbiter used
• Each device on bus is assigned a 4-bit
identification number.
• When one or more devices request the bus, they
assert the Start-Arbitration signal and place their
4-bit ID number on ARB[3..0].
• The request that has the highest ID number
ends up having the highest priority.
• Advantages – offers higher reliability (operation
of the bus is not dependent on any one device).
• SCSI bus is an example of distributed
(decentralized) arbitration.