The document discusses the concept, nature, and functions of language, emphasizing its role in communication and social expression. It introduces the 'Language Across the Curriculum' (LAC) approach, advocating for language learning to occur across all subjects to enhance students' understanding and proficiency. The document outlines the goals, benefits, and challenges associated with implementing the LAC approach in educational settings.

1. Language Across the curriculum (LAC) Approach
1. Concept, nature and function of language
Concept
Language has been originally derived from Latin word, ’Lingua’ which means ‘tongue’.
In general, it refers to the cognitive faculty which enables human being to learn and use
system of complex communication.
Language, like any other concept, has several definitions. This is, of course, due to the fact
that people seem to view things from different perspectives. However, most definitions of
language seem to have some similarities.
language, a system of conventional spoken, manual (signed), or written symbols by means
of which human beings, as members of a social group and participants in its culture,
express themselves. The functions of language include communication, the expression
of identity, play, imaginative expression, and emotional release.
Nature
A language consists of words, idioms and syntax. It is through language that we think, feel,
judge and express. Hence language is one of the most important and characteristic form of
human behaviour we use words and idioms as tool to perform and share experience among
a people possible.
1. Language is speech: - Language is speech and is distinct from the signs, gestures and
sounds produced by animals or pets to convey a particular feeling or emotion. It is distinct
from the sign language even amongst the humans at any point of social and biological
evolution. It restricts itself to recognised expression and communication to or from human
beings by means of speech and hearing. This communication, therefore, has to be from
man to man, from a person to another person by means of speech, and hearing. Speech,
therefore, is language.
2. Living Language: - As seen earlier, a language undergoes a continuous and unnoticed
change for its refinement and depth. It responds to the demands and requirements of the
group that it represents. As the human utterances became complex and varied, a language
to be living must move with the group. Must grow with the group, should be alive to their
needs and aspirations in this process of change and growth, language acquires new shape,
new approach, new significance and new application.
3. Language and Society: - “Language is one of the most important and characteristic forms
of human behaviour. With widening range and horizon of human thought and action, the
language has to keep in step with its social calling. As “language is activity, a purposeful
activity, it must help man to express himself in a variety of new and different kinds of
situations. It is the society that in its turn, bestows meaning towards and idioms by
conventionalising them to mean what they mean today to a group or a community, in a
variety of complex contexts.

2. 4. Operation of Language: - As language has relevance only in social context, it is necessary
for its operation. That a social necessity or scenario exists. There should be a corresponding
situation for the language to operate upon. It is a conventional arrangement between the
speaker and the listener.
5. Sounds and Signals: - Sounds produced by human beings differ from the ‘signal-like’
sounds and actions of the animals. A lot of research is going on to establish if the animals
also have similar conventionalised arrangement in their expression. According to
Bloomfield, “In human speech, different sounds have different meanings. To study this
coordination of certain sounds with certain meanings is to study language”. In other words,
a study of a language consists in giving meaning to a meaning. The meaning already exists,
we have to give it a meaning to be intelligible to us as a language.
Function of language
1. Social Function: - It has been said time and again that language is social it operates in a
social setting, it acquires meaning and significance in a social interaction. It is a means of
communication between members of a community, or between a community and
community. It is "capable of handling all references and meanings (Sapir) of a given
culture. It is a means of expression.
2. Cultural Function: - As a "language is a part of the culture of a people and the chief means
by which the members of a society communicate, it is wedded to culture, is inseparable
from it and hence performs a cultural function. The content of every culture is expressible
in its language.
3. Language and the Individual: - As a symbolic system, language either report to. refers to
or substitutes for. direct experience. Whatever the case may be, language cannot "stand
apart from or run parallel to direct experience, but completely interpenetrates with it"
Language Functions
The Individual Aspect
Asthetic
Expressive
The Social Aspect
Cultural
Expressive
or
Communicative

3. 4. The Expressive Function: - Language is a great force of socialization. "Language is
primarily a vocal actualization of the tendency to see realities symbolically. There cannot
be any meaningful social interaction without language. The language binds the people into
one large group called nation. The national language socializes the behavior of the whole
nation, whereas, the regional languages help integrate regional groups. Language is the
greatest and most potent force of integration.
5. Aesthetic Aspect: - Language helps store culture experiences in the form of literature and
other written records for the posterity. These cultural experiences form the nexus of
individual realization. It breathes life into our poets and dramatists. Short of a language,
such fine arts were not possible. Aesthetic experiences are the treasure for the posterity to
feel proud of it as a national treasure-house.
Five functions of language:
Geoffery Leach (1974) mentioned that language has five functions.
1. Informational
2. Expressive
3. Directive
4. Aesthetic
5. Phatic
Informational function which everyone tends to assume is most important” Geoffery
Leech (1974). In fact, this function concentrates on the message. It is used to give new
information. It depends on truth and value. Let us look at this example, the car is big, the
bus is crowded.
” Language can have an expressive function: that is, it can be used to express its
originator’s feelings and attitudes – swear words and exclamations are the most obvious
instance of this”. Geoffery Leech (1974). The speaker or writer of this function tries to
express his feelings. He or she reflexes his or her impression. This function could give a
clear image for the personality of the speaker or writer. The best example of this kind is
Poetry and literature. In fact, this function evokes certain feelings and express feelings.
Examples of this kind are, I am very happy or I spent a wonderful vacation.
“The third function of language is the directive function whereby we aim to influence the
behavior or attitudes of others. The most straightforward instances of the directive function
are commands and requests. This function of social control places emphasis on the
receiver’s end, rather than the originator’s end of the message: but it resembles the
expressive function in giving less importance, on the whole, to conceptual meaning than to
other types of meaning, particularly affective and connotative meaning” Geoffery Leech
(1974).
The fourth function is the aesthetic function, which is” the use of language for the sake of
the linguistic artifact itself, and for no purpose. This aesthetic function can have at least as
much to do with conceptual as with affective meaning” Geoffery Leech (1974).” The

4. function associated with the message-the vehicle-is the poetic or aesthetic function: the
sign taken as an end in itself. All art understood as art is taken to embody this function, and
any object valued for its beauty rather than for its ideological value or usefulness-whether
a gorgeous car, an elegant teapot, or some acreage of untouched real estate-takes on this
function.
According to Leech, the fifth function is the phatic function.” the function of keeping
communication lines open, and keeping social relationships in good repair (in Britain
culture, talking about the weather is a well-known example of this)”. Geoffery Leech
(1974). We can say about this function that it is used for normal talks. An example of this,
when two people meet each other accidently in a place. They start talking about something
unimportant for the sake of communication like, how are you? How are your children? And
so on. We can say that it is a kind of daily talking. It is not meaning but is good.
2. Concept of language Across the Curriculum (LAC): Origin and basic tenets
Concept
Language across the curriculum is a modern approach to teaching and learning languages.
According to the LAC approach, language learning should occur throughout the school
hours in
1. the language classroom
2. as well as another subject classroom.
It aims to infuse foreign language across the curriculum. This way student can extend their
knowledge of the second language beyond foreign languages courses. They may apply
those skills to course materials, research, and projects. The inclusion of authentic course-
relevant source materials in other languages prepares students for cross-cultural and
multilingual demands of a global society. LAC approach is something we often read about
and appreciate. LAC approach is hardly practiced in the classroom due to
 the pressure of completing the syllabus on time and
 our inability to break out the rigid boundaries of various subject
Meaning of the Language Across the Curriculum Approach (LAC):
LAC is a term for school and
college courses that allow students to study a foreign language. It allows students to apply
their existing knowledge of a foreign language outside of language learning classrooms.
Origin of Language Across the Curriculum Approach (LAC)
LAC developed in the late 70's and early 80's of the last centuries. But its actual idea of
linking LAC with the school language policies as a whole received formal recognition in
the Allan Bullock report.

5. (A Language for Life)-
"Each school should have an organized policy for Language Across the Curriculum,
establishing every teacher's involvement in language and reading development
throughout the years of schooling."
A decade later this was underlined in the Swan Report (Education for All) –
"Unless there is a school language and learning policy across the curriculum, there
will be wastage of effort and often confusion.”
Need of Language Across the Curriculum Approach (LAC):
A LAC approach is one that
integrates language learning and content learning. The concept of LAC acknowledges the
fact that
‘Language education does not take place in language class alone’
LAC approach advocates that it takes place in each subject class.
There is a need for Language across the curriculum approach because language is best
acquired through different meaning, making contents and learning in all subjects is
dependent upon language. Both content and language are interrelated. Irrespective of the
subject learners are studying, learners assimilate new concepts through language. When
students listen and talk, read and write in non-language class, they use language. So, while
increasing their concepts in non-linguistic fields, they enhance their linguistic skills as well.
So, all in the field of education we need a broad perspective that integrates language and
content learning.
Basic Tenets of LAC
Basic Tenets
Content based
instructions
(CBI)
Principle of
Immersion
Principle of
functional
learning
Content
Integrated
Language
Learning (CILL)
Principle of skill
acquisition

6. Principles of LAC are on the Basis of these Four Major Concepts
1. CONTENT BASED INSTRUCTION (CBI) OR CONTENT INTEGRATED
LANGUAGE LEARNING (CILL):
Natural language acquisition occurs in context;
natural language is never learned divorced from meaning, and content-based
instruction provides a context for meaningful communication.
2. Principle of skill acquisition:
As Language is a skill, it is important to go on practicing
it until one becomes an expert user of it. It can never be acquired by reading books
on it.
3. Principle of Immersion:
This principle tells that all the subjects should be taught not
only for teaching the content, but also for mastering the target language.
4. Principle of functional learning:
This principle tells that language can be learnt well
through its functional aspects rather than the theoretical rules.
3. Goal, benefits and difficulties in LAC approach
Goals
1. The goal of LAC is to support language development in each and every child, in
each learning activity in school.
2. To support and success in academic learning.
3. Another goal of LAC is to improve four language skills. Listening, Speaking,
Reading, Writing, as a whole. The aim of LAC is to develop children's existing
mental and linguistic capacities.
4. To develop thinking process of the student as language is link to the thinking
process.
5. The goal of LAC is to assimilate new concept largely through language, that is
when they listen to talk, read and write.
6. The overall goal of LAC is not just developing cognitive, academic and language
proficiency but conceptual literacy.
Benefits
(a) For Students
I. It helps learners to improve their communication skills in a foreign language.
II. It helps students to learn the content more.
III. It helps learners to expand their ideas.
IV. It helps learners to discuss different issues in a foreign language.

7. V. It helps learners to collect different technical terms related to different subjects.
VI. It opens a vast career world before the students.
VII. It helps students getting admitted to foreign universities.
VIII. It facilitates effective self-study and referring.
(b)For Teachers
1. All teachers can improve their skills in a foreign language.
2. It helps teachers to teach the content in a foreign language.
3. It helps teachers to update their knowledge.
4. It helps teachers give clear instructions to students in Foreign Language.
Difficulties
 The first difficulty comes with the attitude of subject teachers who resist and
object this approach as they do not want to become language teachers on top.
 Another difficulty is that often in schools there is no one centrally responsible for
such a cross-curricular approach except principal. This structural weakness is
often found in schools, colleges as well as universities.
 Introducing LAC requires a radical change in the attitudes and mentality of the
teachers involved. Teachers have to be trained and prepared for integrating
language into the subject matter teaching at school.
4. Role of a teacher and criteria for good teacher’s language in LAC
Approach
Role of a Teacher
English teachers introduce and teach the skills, reinforcing them from time to time
in English lessons.
Content subject teachers re-teach those skills or introduce related skills/concepts
in their lesson, integrating language and content.
Example:
The idea of suffixes has been introduced in English lessons. The History teacher
can introduce the new suffix ‘-ism’ and give examples such as ‘communism’ or
‘colonialism’, or consolidate familiar suffixes, like ‘ion’ in ‘rebellion’.
 It is important for English teachers and content subject teachers to each know what
the other is doing. For instance, the English teacher can teach students how to do a
vocabulary log. The content subject teachers then ask students to keep a vocabulary
log for their own subject. The English teacher can collect the vocabulary logs and
check from time to time to make sure that students are on the right track.
 As every subject has to contribute to the language development of students, a
balance between an emphasis on English and an emphasis on content is
recommended.

8.  Since more time and effort has to be spent on the development of students’ language
proficiency, the subject content may have to be reduced, especially at the initial
stages.
Criteria for good Teacher’s Language
Importance:
The classroom is an authentic social environment which provides plenty
of opportunities for the genuine use of language. So, the language the teacher uses
provides exposure to real language use.
Criteria:
1. providing a reliable model (accurate, fluent and appropriate)
2. provide rich comprehensible input
3. being natural
4. exposing students to language that shows form-function relationships
5. varying the situational phrases e.g., the whole class, all together
6. not requiring students to understand every word in order to comprehend the
teacher’s language
7. getting students’ attention before he / she starts talking
8. providing opportunities for students to hear genuine uncontrolled language used for
authentic communicative purposes
9. providing opportunities for authentic use of language
Elements contributing to good teacher language:
1. Speed
- adjusting the speed of the teacher talk to match the level of students’
understanding
- breaking up the teacher talk into smaller manageable ‘chunks’
2. Vocabulary
- using simple vocabulary
- using vocabulary that is generally known to the students
3. Language structures
- using simpler structures e.g., active sentences
- using short sentences
4. Content
- including familiar topics to arouse students’ interest
- including requests for repetition, clarification or explanation from students
- including much encouragement for students to interact
5. Repeating and rephrasing

9. - repeating and rephrasing the sentences to help students understand
6. Flexibility
- using the language flexibly in different situations

10. Multilingualism Classrooms
 ‘Multilingualism & Language Diversity in Class’ – as a resource and
challenges
As a resource
Recent research has shown that in multilingual societies where people know multiple
languages, language boundaries are porous and fluid. What this means is that people have
internalized these languages to an extent that they do not have to consciously think in one
language before speaking in another. In other words, people are inherently multilingual in
such societies and have the ability to use one or more languages, or switch or mix them
according to the situational domains they are in. If we accept this reality, we will have to
accept that creating homogenous classrooms where we impose one language and ignore
the multilingual reality will not work well. We are not fair to the children when we dismiss
their linguistic and cultural backgrounds. By doing so, we alienate them and their
backgrounds in our classroom. As teachers of English, it is time we reflected on our beliefs
and teaching practices.
Example
It is possible to use the multilingual diversity as a resource in our classroom by maintaining
multilingualism at the center of language teaching activities. But how exactly do we do
that? If you, for instance, have to teach them a poem in English, what could you possibly
do?
Here are a few suggestions:
Get them first to recite the English poem.
Then, focus on the theme that it deals with.
Next, let them identify subtle elements and features of the poem that they may identify.
Now, split your class into groups to translate the poem into any other language of their
choice.
Finally, get each group to present their translated versions of the poem.
What you will find is that once this activity is done, many rich discussions will naturally
emerge around the poem. What would become important in such an exercise is not about
the accuracy of translation but the process of translating the poem. This activity will not
only be cognitively challenging and more engaging, but will also help your students to
generalize rules of grammar on their own.
Challenges
1. From the teacher’s perspective
 Find the right instruction for different proficiency levels in one class
 Try to adapt to cultural backgrounds in one class in order to integrate all of them
 Find curricular objectives according to mono-/bi-/ plurilingual pedagogies
 Consider possible pressure from parents in case they pay money for the education of their
children

11.  Different oral / written proficiencies
2. From the family’s perspective
 The prestige of the family language, whether it is a majority or a minority language
 The identification of the family with the language
 Is the family language just spoken at home or does the child also uses it to read and write?
 The attitude towards the language. Is the language only used outside or also at school?
 The cultural background of grandparents and other family members.
Other challenges affecting the multilingual classroom
 Differences is race, gender, socio-economic status, nationality and religion
 Language as determinant of Access & symbol of aspiration
in Indian Context
“English has been part of our education system for more than a century. Yet,
English is not accessible to all, which makes for highly inequality. Several
policies has proposed that the teaching of English as a language should be
introduced, along with the first language (either the mother tongue or the
regional language) of the child, starting from Class I in school.”
There is a constant tussle between the minority Indian languages and the
language of the dominant majority in Indian States. This tussle can be
resolved only in favouring a mastering of common medium, English. Both the
minority and the majority will lose their languages probably,
The NK Commission also suggests an outline for this early education in English in
these practical words: “This phase of language learning should focus on using both
languages to create meaningful learning experiences for the child without
disproportionate emphasis on grammar and rules.”
As an Access
For centuries, equal access meant merely acquisition of writing in my
own mother tongue.
The New Century interprets equal access as fair acquisition of English.

12.  The use of English is the (or most important) determinant for equal access. It certainly
helps the ruling classes of the nation to create knowledge and wealth.
 English language, is perhaps the most important determinant of access to higher
education and primer institutes
 Social opportunities and respects
 In most subjects, books and journals are available only in English.
 Employment possibilities and Job
 Technology n gadgets in English
As an aspiration
 PARENTAL ASPIRATIONS IN A FREE SOCIETY Parental aspirations carry the
day in favor of early English education in India. Indian Educationists want mother tongue
education at the earliest levels of education, but the schools they guide, direct, and
superintend go in the opposite direction! And most of these educationists send their
children to English medium schools. Politicians and others who help mould public
opinion are no exception to this trend.
But there is Lack of Direction and guidance to think forward for the commoners in this
ground.
 For knowledge
 Multilingulism
 Social mobility-
 Social status gain - ,respectable position in society ,non-discrimation
Challenges
 Income
 Rigid social boundaries ,mind-set
 Unavaibilty of good English medium school
 Good and trained proficient teacher
Way forward to give equal access and to fulfil commoner’s aspiration in language
leavening
Induction of English in curriculum for class -1
Teacher
English medium school opening
Resources library, audio-visual aids, language lab appropriate to the age of the students,

13.  Three-Language Formula
It was first incorporated in the National Education Policy in 1968 by the Indira Gandhi
government.
In Hindi-speaking states: English, Hindi, and a modern Indian language.
non-Hindi speaking states: English, Hindi, and one Indian language.
It was incorporated because the teaching system across several regions was not uniform in the
country. Also, Hindi was the general medium of instruction in the north, regional languages
and English was the medium of instruction in other parts. However, it leads to chaos and
generated difficulties for inter-state communication.
The three-language formula sought to serve three functions namely, accommodating group
identity, affirming national unity, and increasing administrative efficiency.
In 1968, the three-language formula was implemented across the country, barring Tamil Nadu
that adopted a two-language policy.
Incidentally, the NPE 1986 does not make any change in the 1968 policy on the three-language
formula and the promotion of Hindi and repeated it verbatim.
About the progress of the Three-Language Formula
Education is the state subject and so the implementation of the formula also lay with the states.
Only a few states adopted the formula in principle. In several Hindi-speaking states, Sanskrit
became the third language instead of any modern language mainly in the south Indian
language. Therefore, the purpose of the three-language formula was defeated to promote inter-
state communications. Also, a non-Hindi-speaking state like Tamil Nadu adopted a two-
language policy and did not implement the three-language formula. And since then, in Tamil
Nadu two-language policy is working. In two languages one is English and the other in Tamil.
Three Language Formula according to NEP 2020
- As a medium of instruction: Wherever possible, the medium of instruction until at least Grade
5, but preferably till Grade 8 and beyond it will be the home language/mother-tongue/local
language/regional language.
- The three-language formula will continue to be implemented to promote multilingualism as
well as promote national unity.
- NEP states that there will be greater flexibility in the three-language formula. But no language
will be imposed on any State.

14. - To learn three languages will be the choice of States, regions, and students themselves, as
long as at least two of the three languages are native to India.
According to the HRD Ministry of Education, the three-language formula will continue to be
implemented in schools "with greater flexibility" but "no language will be imposed on any
state."
 Role of language in curriculum Transection
The language is always believed to play a central role in learning. No matter what the subject
area, students assimilate new concepts when they listen, talk, read and write about what they
are learning. Speaking and writing reflects the thinking process that is taking place. Students
learn in language, therefore if their language is weak, so is their learning.
Most importantly, we need to have an Learning Across Curriculum (LAC) approach because
by focusing on the teaching and learning of language within a subject, the teacher will improve
the students’ results in that subject, for example, by explicitly teaching students how to write
History essays, or how best to write ‘for and against’ arguments in Liberal Studies.
Experienced teachers know that it is essential to teach their students how to ‘answer’ the types
of questions they are likely to find in their exams. After understanding and working with the
LAC concept, teachers across disciplines will thus be improving students learning within their
own subject while also supporting the efforts of the whole school to improve English
proficiency.
 Language as a constituent component of higher-order thinking skills and a necessary
precondition for successful content learning: There is little doubt that successful learning in
most school subjects strongly depends on the availability of higher-order thinking skills.
 Language as a tool for making meaning: Many of the approaches to the language
dimension of content teaching are based on social-constructivist concepts of learning and the
original ideas of the developmental psychologists Vygotsky and Bruner. Vygotsky claimed
that young children develop higher order thinking skills through cultural mediation and
interpersonal communication with more knowledgeable adults or peers, which means that the
development of mental concepts and the appropriation of procedural knowledge depend on
social interaction and verbal exchange. Thus, without adequate language means and
strategies which are geared to formal education learners cannot be expected to take advantage
of opportunities schools normally offer.
 Language as a filter for assessing learning outcomes: Formal assessment procedures in
school subjects heavily rely on open- or half-open-formatted tasks and on oral or written
presentations by the student how s/he has solved the task. What makes matters even more
complicated is the fact that in high stake assessment the academic register determines the
characteristics of the verbal filter. In plain words: If students do not have an age-adequate
command of subject literacy they have no chance to meet the (very often) implicit
expectations by the teacher as a subject specialist who claims to be primarily concerned with
content. If one would choose to reduce the language load of assessment tasks by resorting to
closed-formatted items such as multiple-choice, matching or fill-in formats, one would
seriously delay the development of subject literacy.