Glycogenolysis, process by which glycogen, the primary carbohydrate stored in the liver and muscle cells of animals, is broken down into glucose to provide immediate energy and to maintain blood glucose levels during fasting. These slides will provide you detail explanation of Glycogenolysis.
Glycogenolysis, process by which glycogen, the primary carbohydrate stored in the liver and muscle cells of animals, is broken down into glucose to provide immediate energy and to maintain blood glucose levels during fasting. These slides will provide you detail explanation of Glycogenolysis.
Gluconeogenesis: Defined as biosynthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors
-Gluconeogenesis: an intro
-Thermodynamic Barriers (Each barrier detail explanation)
- Energetics of gluconeogenesis
-Substrates of gluconeogenesis (each substrate and pathway explained)
-Regulation of Gluconeogenesis, hormonal and transcriptional regulation
Pentose phosphate pathway is also called Hexose monophosphate pathway/ HMP shunt/ Phosphogluconate pathway.
It is an alternative route for the metabolism of glucose.
It is more complex pathway than glycolysis.
It is more anabolic in nature.
It takesplace in cytosol.
The tissues such as liver, adipose tissue, adrenal gland, erythrocytes,testes and lactating mammary gland are highly active in HMP shunt.
It concern with the biosynthesis of NADPH and pentoses.
This powerpoint gives detailed description and clear view about Glycogenesis and glycogenolysis . these two metabolic actions are very important for regulating blood glucose levels. it also explains about the glycogen storage
Pentose phosphate pathway is an alternative pathway to glycolysis and TCA cycle for oxidation of glucose. It is a shunt of glycolysis. It is also known as hexose monophosphate (HMP) shunt or phosphogluconate pathway. It occurs in cytoplasm of both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. While it involves oxidation of glucose, its primary role is anabolic rather than catabolic. It is an important pathway that generates precursors for nucleotide synthesis and is especially important in red blood cells (erythrocytes).
Gluconeogenesis- Steps, Regulation and clinical significanceNamrata Chhabra
Gluconeogenesis- Thermodynamic barriers, substrates of gluconeogenesis, reciprocal regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis, biological and clinical significance
Gluconeogenesis: Defined as biosynthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors
-Gluconeogenesis: an intro
-Thermodynamic Barriers (Each barrier detail explanation)
- Energetics of gluconeogenesis
-Substrates of gluconeogenesis (each substrate and pathway explained)
-Regulation of Gluconeogenesis, hormonal and transcriptional regulation
Pentose phosphate pathway is also called Hexose monophosphate pathway/ HMP shunt/ Phosphogluconate pathway.
It is an alternative route for the metabolism of glucose.
It is more complex pathway than glycolysis.
It is more anabolic in nature.
It takesplace in cytosol.
The tissues such as liver, adipose tissue, adrenal gland, erythrocytes,testes and lactating mammary gland are highly active in HMP shunt.
It concern with the biosynthesis of NADPH and pentoses.
This powerpoint gives detailed description and clear view about Glycogenesis and glycogenolysis . these two metabolic actions are very important for regulating blood glucose levels. it also explains about the glycogen storage
Pentose phosphate pathway is an alternative pathway to glycolysis and TCA cycle for oxidation of glucose. It is a shunt of glycolysis. It is also known as hexose monophosphate (HMP) shunt or phosphogluconate pathway. It occurs in cytoplasm of both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. While it involves oxidation of glucose, its primary role is anabolic rather than catabolic. It is an important pathway that generates precursors for nucleotide synthesis and is especially important in red blood cells (erythrocytes).
Gluconeogenesis- Steps, Regulation and clinical significanceNamrata Chhabra
Gluconeogenesis- Thermodynamic barriers, substrates of gluconeogenesis, reciprocal regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis, biological and clinical significance
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Metabolism of glycogen and its clinical significance final.pptxrohini sane
A comprehensive presentation on Metabolism of Glycogen and its clinical significance MBBS , BDS, B Pharm & Biotechnology students to facilitate self- study.
Define what is respiration
Differentiate aerobic from anaerobic respiration
Explain the 4 main stages of aerobic respiration
Explain the process of fermentation
intro of glycolysis there cycle and step - function-significance-defination-glucogenesis cycle-significance of gluconeogenesis-function of gluconeogenesis-conclusion
This PPT contains content of Gluconeogenesis, Steps involved in Gluconeogenesis, (Gluconeogenesis from Pyruvate, Gluconeogenesis from lactate, Gluconeogenesis from amino acids, Gluconeogenesis from glycerol, Gluconeogenesis from Propionate), Regulation and significance of Gluconeogenesis
2. Gluconeogenesis
Synthesis of "new glucose" from common metabolites
•Humans use ~160 g of glucose per day
•75% is used by the brain
•Body fluids contain only 20 g of glucose
•Glycogen stores yield 180-200 g of glucose
•So the body must be able to make its own glucose
• 90% of gluconeogenesis occurs in the liver and kidneys
3. Why is gluconeogenesis not just
the reverse of glycolysis?
• The reverse of glycolysis is
• 2 Pyruvate + 2ATP + 2 NADH + 2H+ + 2H2O
glucose +2ADP +2Pi + 2 NAD + (DG = +74 kJ/mol)
• This is thermodynamically unfavorable, so energetically unfavorable
steps in the reverse glyolysis reaction are replaced and energy is
added in the form of GTP and ATP to give:
• The actual equation for gluconeogenesis
• 2Pyruvate + 4ATP +2GTP+ 2NADH + 2H+ + 6H2O
glucose +4ADP +2GDP +6Pi + 2 NAD + (DG = -38 kJ/mol)
• Notice the extra ATPs and GTPs drive the
process
4. Glycolysis <-> gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis is not the reversal of glycolysis !!!
Glycolysis: in the cytosol
Gluconeogenesis: major part in cytosol
-> 1st step in mitochondria -> shuttle
Biotin: prosthetic
group -> carrier
for CO2
Reverse reaction of glycolysis thermodynamically
not favorable !!!
4
5.
6. Glycolysis vs Gluconeogenesis
• Glycolosis
• Glucose (6C) to 2 pyruvates
(3C)
• Creates energy 2ATP
• Reduces 2 NAD+ to 2 NADH
• Active when energy in cell low
• 10 steps from glucose to
pyruvate
• Pyruvate to AcCoA before
Krebs
• Gluconeogenesis
• 2 pyruvates (3C) to Glucose
(6C)
• Consumes energy
4ATP+2GTP
• Oxidizes 2NADH to 2 NAD+
• Active when energy in cell high
• 11 steps from pyruvate to
glucose
• AcCoA isn’t used in
gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis uses 7 of the 10 enzymatic reactions
of glycolysis but in the reverse direction. The 3 not used
are the ones requiring ATP in glycolysis.
7. Synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate
precursors:
-> gluconeogenesis
• Brain and blood cells depend on glucose ->
160g/day (mainly for the brain)
• Glucose in the blood: 20g
• Starvation > 1day other metabolites
for energy!
-> Gluconeogenesis pathway:
• Takes place in liver (and kidneys)
• Important to maintain blood glucose level
• Major precursors: glycerol, amino acids,
lactic acid
• Specific enzymes in addition to glycolysis
(for the irreversible steps in glycosis)
7
8. Synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors:
-> gluconeogenesis
Pyruvate (end product of glycolysis) -> under aerobic conditions -> shuttle into Mitochondria
-> converted into acetyl-CoA -> citric acid cycle
Gluconeogenesis -> start with
pyruvate in mitochondria
1st Step: convertion to
oxaloacetate
-> malate/oxaloacetate shuttle
glycolysis
8
9. Synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors:
-> gluconeogenesis
Triacylglycerols (Lipids) taken up by diet
-> brocken down to fatty acids and glycerol
cannot be converted to glucose
glucose
9
10. Substrates for gluconeogenesis:
Pyruvate
Lactate
Glycerol
TCA cycle intermediates
Most amino acids
Not substrates for gluconeogenesis:
Acetyl-CoA
Fatty acids
Lysine
Leucine
11. Regulatory enzymes of gluconeogenesis
• Pyruvate carboxylase
• PEP carboxykinase (PEPCK)
• Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase
• Glucose-6-phosphatase
12. First Reaction of Gluconeogenesis
- recall that pyruvate is the final product of glycolysis.
The pyruvate carboxylase reaction.
14. Regulation of Gluconeogenesis
Glucose-6-phosphatase is subject to substrate level
control.
- at higher G6P concentrations reaction rate increases
- recall, this happens in the liver. Other tissues do not
hydrolyze their G6P, thereby trapping it in the cells.
Glycolysis and gluconeogenesis are reciprocally regulated.
- regulatory molecules that inhibit gluconeogenesis often
activate glycolysis, and vise versa.
15. Pyruvate is converted to oxaloacetate before being
changed to Phosphoenolpyruvate
1. Pyruvate carboxylase catalyses the ATP-driven
formation of oxaloacetate from pyruvate and CO2
2. PEP carboxykinase (PEPCK) concerts oxaloacetate
to PEP that uses GTP as a phosphorylating agent.
16. Pyruvate carboxylase requires biotin as a cofactor
Biotin is an essential cofactor in
most carboxylation reactions.
It is an essential vitamin in the
human diet, but deficiencies are
rare.
17. Biotin is an essential nutrient
There is hardly any deficiencies for biotin because it
is abundant and bacteria in the large intestine also
make it.
However, deficiencies have been seen and are nearly
always linked to the consumption of raw eggs.
Raw eggs contain Avidin, a protein that binds biotin
with a Kd = 10-15 (that is one tight binding reaction!)
It is thought that Avidin protects eggs from bacterial
invasion by binding bioitin and killing bacteria.
18. Acetyl-CoA regulates pyruvate
carboxylase
Increases in oxaloacetate concentrations increase
the activity of the Krebs cycle and acetyl-CoA is a
allosteric activator of the carboxylase.
However when ATP and NADH concentrations are
high and the Krebs cycle is inhibited, oxaloacetate
goes to glucose.
19. Pyruvate is converted to oxaloacetate
in the mitochondria
Oxaloacetate cannot be transported
directly across the mitochondrial
membrane so it is converted to
malate, then transported, then
oxidized back to oxaloacetate.
20. Transport between the
mitochondria and the cytosol
Generation of oxaloacetate occurs in the mitochondria only,
but, gluconeogenesis occurs in the cytosol.
Oxaloacetate are produced through pyruvate carboxylase,
requires exiting the mitochondrion. Moreover, the inner
mitochondrial membrane is not permeable to this compound.
Therefore, oxaloacetate is converted to malate inside the
mitochondrion through mitochondrial malate dehydrogenase,
the malate is transported by the mitochondrial membrane
through a special transport protein and then the malate is
converted back to oxaloacetate in the cytoplasm through a
cytosolic malate dehydrogenase.
23. Nucleotide diphosphate kinases
– Both glycolysis and Oxidative phosphorylation
produce ATP with its high energy phoshoanhydride
bonds: How does GTP get made from GDP?
– Directly from a single step in the Krebs cycle AND
from the following reaction
– GDP + ATP → GTP + ADP
– This is carried out in the cell by an enzyme called
– Nucleotide diphosphate kinase which carries out the
general reaction
– NDP + ATP → NTP + ADP (where N is T, G, or C)
24. Regulatory enzymes of gluconeogenesis
• Pyruvate carboxylase
• PEP carboxykinase (PEPCK)
• Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase
• Glucose-6-phosphatase
25.
26. Last step of gluconeogenesis
Free glucose is important control point -> pathway ends mostly with glucose-6-P
-> finished just if glucose is needed (in blood)
-> advantage of stopping at glucose-6-P
-> trapped in the cell (cannot shuttle outside)
Last step of gluconeogenesis: in ER lumen
-> glucose shuttled back to cytosol ->
leaves cell
26
27. Regulatory enzymes of gluconeogenesis
• Pyruvate carboxylase
• PEP carboxykinase (PEPCK)
• Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase
• Glucose-6-phosphatase
28. Glucose-6-phosphatase
-enzyme unique to liver and kidney allowing them to supply glucose
to other tissues. Found in ER (endoplasmic reticulum).
Glucose-6-phosphate cannot exit the cell, and so, in the liver, glucose 6-
phosphate is transported into the endoplasmic reticulum, where it is converted
into glucose by glucose 6-phosphatase.
29. Fructose-2,6-bisphosphate
•A potent allosteric regulatory molecule.
•- activates phosphofructokinase.
•- inhibits fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase.
•- its synthesis and degradation are catalyzed by the same
bifunctional enzyme.
30. Fructose-2,6-bisphosphate
• F2,6BP activates phosphofructokinase
(PFK1) - the enzyme in glycolysis that
converts fructose-6-phosphate to fructose-
1,6-bisphosphate.
• F2,6BP also inhibits fructose-1,6-
bisphosphatase (F1,6BPase) - the
enzyme in gluconeogenesis.
• F1,6BPase is ten times more sensitive to
F2,6BP than AMP.
33. • In the liver, the most important coordinating modulator is
fructose 2,6-bisphophate (F2,6BP)
• It is formed from F6P by the enzyme phosphofructokinase-2
(PFK-2)
• It is broken down by the same enzyme, but at a different
catalytic site in the enzyme – it’s a bifunctional protein
-It is called fructose 2,6-bisphosphatase (FBPase-2) for
this activity
- Balance of PFK-2 to FBPase-2 activity controlled by
-Glucagon
-Insulin
34. Reciprocal regulation of glycolysis & gluconeogenesis
• Pathways not active at same
time
• Regulated by products of
reaction and precursors
(allostery)
• Regulated by hormones:
glucagon & insulin, through
F-2,6-BP
• Regulated at the
transcriptional level of genes
In the liver: aim is to maintain blood glucose level
glucagon
insulin
transcription
34
35. Balance between glycolysis and gluconeogenesis in the liver
-> sensitive to blood glucose concentration
-
Regulated by a bifunctional enzyme: PFK2/FBPase2
-> formed by PFK2
-> hydrolysed (dephosphorylated) by FBPase2
Phosphofructokinase 2 Fructose bisphophatase 2
35
36. 6-phosphofructo-2-kinase/fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase
P
Low glucose
High glucagon
Increased
phosphorylation
Phosphorylation of the enzyme results in the inactivation of the
phosphofructokinase-2 activity and activation of the fructose-2,6-
bisphosphatase activity. This results in a down regulation of
glycolysis and increased gluconeogenesis.
37. Balance between glycolysis and gluconeogenesis in the liver
-> sensitive to blood glucose concentration
Low blood-glucose level ->
glucagon-> low level of F-2,6-BP
High blood-glucose level ->
insulin-> high level of F-2,6-BP
37
44. Regulation of Gluconeogenesis
• Fate of pyruvate
•Go on to citric acid cycle – requires conversion to Acetyl
Co-A by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
•Gluconeogenesis – first step is conversion to
oxaloacetate by pyruvate carboxylase
• Acetyl Co-A accumulation
• inhibits pyruvate dehydrogenase
• activates pyruvate carboxylase
45. Coordinated regulation of PFK-1 and FBPase-1
(1) Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1) (glycolysis)
(2) Fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase FBPase-1 (gluconeogenesis)
• Modulating one enzyme in a substrate cycle will alter the flux
through the two opposing pathways
• Two coordinating modulators
•AMP
•Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate
• Inhibiting PFK-1 stimulates gluconeogenesis
• Inhibiting the phosphatase stimulates glycolysis
• AMP concentration coordinates regulation
• stimulates glycolysis
• Inhibits gluconeogenesis
47. Cori Cycle
• Muscular activity leads to the release of epinephrine by
the adrenal medulla.
• During muscle contractions, ATP is constantly being
used to supply energy and more ATP is produced.
• At first glycolysis produces pyruvic acid which is then
converted into acetyl CoA and is metabolized in the citric
acid cycle to make ATP.
• If muscular activity continues, the availability of oxygen
becomes the limiting factor and the cells soon exhaust
their supplies of oxygen.
• However, glycolysis continues even under anaerobic
conditions even though the citric acid cycle works only
under aerobic conditions.
48. Cori Cycle (cont.)
• The final limiting factor in continued muscular
activity is the build up of lactic acid. The lactic
acid eventually produces muscular pain which
force discontinuation of activity.
• The lactic acid is sent in the blood to the liver
which can convert it back to pyruvic acid and
then to glucose through gluconeogenesis.
• The glucose can enter the blood and be carried
to muscles
• If by this time the muscles have ceased activity,
the glucose can be used to rebuild supplies of
glycogen through glycogenesis.
49. Cori Cycle (cont.)
Liver Cell
• At this time the oxygen debt can be made up so that the citric cycle
and electron transport chain also begin to function again. In order
for most of the lactic acid to be converted to glucose, some must be
converted to pyruvic acid and then to acetyl CoA
52. Sample questions
• There are four enzymes of gluconeogenesis that
circumvent the irreversible steps in glycolysis. When
starting with the substrate pyruvate or lactate they are
• A. Hexokinase, phosphofructokinase-1,
phosphofructokinase-2 and pyruvate kinase
• B. Pyruvate carboxylase, phosphoenolpyruvate
carboxykinase, fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase, and
glucose-6-phosphatase
• C. Glycerol kinase, glycerol-3-phosphate
dehydrogenase, fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase, and
glucose-6-phosphatase
• D. Amino transferase, phosphoenolpyruvate
carboxykinase, fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase, and
glucose-6-phosphatase
53. Sample questions
• The enzymes that remove phosphate groups during the
process of gluconeogenesis and circumvent two of the
three irreversible reactions of glycolysis are
• A. Pyruvate kinase and glycerol kinase
• B. Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and glycerol
kinase
• C. 3-Phosphoglycerate kinase and fructose-1,6-
bisphosphatase
• D. Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase and glucose-6-
phosphatase
55. Glycogen Metabolism
• Glycogenolysis is a process by which
glycogen is broken down into glucose to
provide immediate energy and to maintain
blood glucose levels during fasting.
• Glycogenesis is the formation of glycogen
from glucose.
56. • Glycogenolysis occurs primarily in the liver and
is stimulated by the hormones glucagon and
epinephrine (adrenaline).
• When blood glucose levels fall, as during fasting,
there is an increase in glucagon secretion from
the pancreas. This increase is accompanied by
a decrease in insulin secretion.
• Insulin is aimed at increasing the storage of
glucose in the form of glycogen
57. Regulation of Glycogen Metabolism
• Muscle glycogen is fuel for muscle contraction
• Liver glycogen is mostly converted to glucose for bloodstream transport
to other tissues
• Both mobilization and synthesis of glycogen are regulated by hormones
• Insulin, glucagon and epinephrine regulate mammalian glycogen
metabolism (hormones)
• Ca2+ and [AMP]/[ATP] (muscle glycogen phosphorylase)
• [glucose] (liver glycogen phosphorylase)
• [glucose 6-phosphate] (glycogen synthase)
• Hormones
•Insulin is produced by b-cells of the pancreas
-increases glucose transport into muscle, adipose tissue via GLUT 4 transporter
-stimulates glycogen synthesis in the liver
58. • Glucagon Secreted by the a cells of the pancreas in response
to low blood glucose (elevated glucagon is associated with the
fasted state)
-Stimulates glycogen degradation to restore blood glucose
to steady-state levels
-Only liver cells are rich in glucagon receptors
• Epinephrine (adrenaline) Released from the adrenal glands
in response to sudden energy requirement (“fight or flight”)
- Stimulates the breakdown of glycogen to G1P (which is
converted to G6P)
-Increased G6P levels increase both the rate of glycolysis in
muscle and glucose release to the bloodstream from the liver
61. • 1) Epinephrine binds to a receptor on the muscle cell membrane and stimulates adenyl cyclase in the
membrane.
• 2) Adenyl cyclase in the membrane catalyzes the formation of cyclic AMP from ATP.
• 3) The increase of cyclic AMP activates a protein kinase. The binding of cyclic AMP to an enzyme is
an allosteric control where the enzyme is "switched on" for activity.
• 4) The protein kinase causes phosphorylations (addition of phosphate) on a series of phosphorylation
enzymes which activates them to finally produce glucose-1-phosphate. At the same time that
enzymes are being activated for glycogen breakdown, glycogen synthetase enzyme must be
inactivated. Glycogenesis must be "switched off" and glycogenolysis "switched on."
• 5) Glucose-6-phosphate is the final result of the initial stimulation by epinephrine or other hormones
such as glucagon. If this happened to a muscle cell, then the glycolysis pathway is the next step in
the sequence. If this happened to a liver cell stimulated by glucagon, then glucose is produced to
enter the blood stream.
62. • Epinephrine markedly stimulates glycogen
breakdown in muscles and, to a lesser
extent, in the liver.
• Muscular activity quickly uses stored ATP
as the energy source and more ATP must
be generated by the breakdown of
glycogen.
63. • At first glycolysis produces pyruvic acid which is then converted into acetyl CoA and is
metabolized in the citric acid cycle to make ATP.
• If muscular activity continues, the cells soon exhaust their supplies of oxygen. When this
happens, the citric acid cycle is inhibited and causes pyruvic acid to accumulate.
• However, glycolysis continues even under anaerobic conditions even though the citric
acid cycle works only under aerobic conditions. Glycogenolysis is stimulated to make
more glucose-6-phosphate.
• When the cells become anaerobic, glycolysis continues if pyruvic acid is converted to
lactic acid.
Liver Cell
75. Glycogen phosphorylase
is activated upon
phosphorylation by
phosphorylase kinase.
Phosphorylase kinase is
activated upon
phosphorylation by protein
kinase A (PKA).
PKA is activated by
cyclic AMP, which is
produced by a G-protein in
response to
epinephrine/glucagon.
76. Reciprocal Regulation of Glycogen
Phosphorylase and Glycogen Synthase
• Glycogen phosphorylase (GP) and glycogen synthase (GS) control
glycogen metabolism in liver and muscle cells
• GP and GS are reciprocally regulated both covalently and allosterically (when
one is active the other is inactive)
• Covalent regulation by phosphorylation (-P) and dephosphorylation (-OH)
COVALENT MODIFICATION (Hormonal control)
Active form “a” Inactive form “b”
Glycogen phosphorylase -P -OH
Glycogen synthase -OH -P
Allosteric regulation of GP and GS
GP a (active form) - inhibited by Glucose
GP (muscle)- stimulated by Ca2+ and high [AMP]
GS b (inactive form) - activated by Glucose 6-Phosphate
77. Control of glycogen
phosphorylase
phosphorylase b
(inactive)
phosphorylase a
(active)
phosphorylation
glycogen
breakdown
78. • Hormones initiate enzyme cascades
•Catalyst activates a catalyst activates a catalyst, etc.
• When blood glucose is low: epinephrine and glucagon activate
protein kinase A
• Glycogenolysis is increased (more blood glucose)
• Glycogen synthesis is decreased
88. Sample questions
• The most important control step in gluconeogenesis is fructose-1,6-
bisphosphatase. All of the following statements are true EXCEPT
• A. Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase converts fructose-2,6-bisphosphate
to fructose-6-phosphate
• B. During times when insulin is high, fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase is
inhibited by fructose-2,6-bisphosphate
• C. During a fast or exercise when glucagon and/or epinephrine are
high, fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase is active because of the absence
of fructose-2,6-bisphosphate
• D. Glycolysis or gluconeogenesis cannot be active at the same
time. If they were is would be a futile cycle
89. Sample questions
• In the liver, glucagon will activate
• A. Glycolysis and glycogen synthesis
• B. Gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis
• C. Gluconeogenesis and glycogen synthase
• D. Gluconeogenesis and glycogen synthesis
• Which of the following statements about hormonal levels during different
states is true?
• A. During the time you are eating a high carbohydrate mixed meal, the
insulin to glucagon ratio will decrease
• B. When passing from the fed to fasting state, insulin and glucagon usually
decrease
• C. When playing basketball, epinephrine is usually low and insulin is high
• D. After running for 20 miles, epinephrine and glucagon are high and insulin
is low
90. Sample questions
• All of the following will result in activation of glycogen
phosphorylase in skeletal muscle EXCEPT
• A. Increased concentrations of AMP from contraction of
muscle
• B. Increased epinephrine and cAMP
• C. Increased cytosolic [Ca++]
• D. Increased protein phosphatase
• E. Increased activity of glycogen phosphorylase kinase
91. Experiment for next week
• Separation of Ferrihemoglobin and
Potassium Ferricyanide by Gel Filtration
Chromatography
• Changed to
Construction of Serum Protein Standard
Curve using Folin's Phenol Method
Editor's Notes
The pathways of gluconeogenesis and glycolysis. Species in blue, green, and peach-colored shaded boxes indicate other entry points for gluconeogenesis (in addition to pyruvate).
Covalent linkage of biotin to an activesite lysine in pyruvate carboxylase.
The pathways of gluconeogenesis and glycolysis. Species in blue, green, and peach-colored shaded boxes indicate other entry points for gluconeogenesis (in addition to pyruvate).
