Glycolysis
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Glycolysis is an anaerobic process that converts glucose to pyruvate, generating 2 ATP and 2 NADH. It occurs in two phases, with the first generating G3P from glucose and the second producing pyruvate, ATP and NADH. Glycolysis is essential for energy production in certain cells and tissues. Hexokinase catalyzes the first committed step, directing glucose into glycolysis. Phosphofructokinase is another committed step and major control point, regulated by energy status. Glycolysis ultimately generates a net two ATP per glucose through substrate-level phosphorylation reactions.
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Glycolysis
Complete Glycolysis in short or easy way to understand
Glycolysis is derived from the Greek words glykys = sweet and lysis = splitting.
This pathway was described by EMBDEN,MEYERHOFF and PARNAS. Hence, it is also called EMP PATHWAY.
glycolysis is the process in which 1 molecule of glucose broken down to form 2 molecules of pyruvic acid.thus, 4 ATP molecules are synthesised and 2 ATP molecules are used during glycolysis. it occur in cytoplasm of animal cells,plant cell.
Citric acid cycle
The citric acid cycle (CAC) is a key metabolic pathway that occurs in the mitochondria of cells. It involves the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to carbon dioxide. During each turn of the cycle, NAD+ and FAD are reduced to NADH and FADH2 to generate energy in the form of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. Overall, the complete oxidation of one acetyl-CoA molecule in the CAC and respiratory chain produces 12 ATP molecules, capturing the energy from nutrients. The cycle plays a central role in cellular respiration and the production of energy.
Glycolysis
The document discusses glycolysis, which is the first stage of respiration. Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm of cells and involves splitting a molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate. It has two stages - phosphorylation and oxidation. In phosphorylation, glucose is phosphorylated using ATP to form glucose phosphate, which then splits to form two triose phosphates. In oxidation, the triose phosphates are oxidized to form two pyruvate molecules while collecting hydrogen ions to form NADH, and producing a net gain of two ATP molecules.
Electron transport chain
This document summarizes oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) and the electron transport chain in mitochondria. It states that OXPHOS is essential for generating ATP through the transfer of electrons from donor molecules like NADH to oxygen. It occurs through five protein complexes embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane: complex I-IV transfer electrons and pump protons out of the matrix, while complex V uses the proton gradient to drive ATP synthesis. The document provides an overview of each complex and how they facilitate electron transfer and proton pumping to create the electrochemical gradient used for ATP production.
PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY
The pentose phosphate pathway (PPP; also called the phosphogluconate pathway and the hexose monophosphate shunt) is a process that breaks down glucose-6-phosphate into NADPH and pentoses (5-carbon sugars) for use in downstream biological processes. There are two distinct phases in the pathway: the oxidative phase and the non-oxidative phase.
Glycogen metabolism
Glycogen is the storage form of carbohydrates in animals, analogous to starch in plants. Glycogen is synthesized from glucose through glycogenesis, which occurs predominantly in the liver and muscles, and stored glycogen is broken down to glucose through glycogenolysis. Glycogenesis is regulated by hormones like insulin, epinephrine, and glucagon that control intracellular cAMP levels and the phosphorylation state of glycogen synthase to convert it between its active and inactive forms.
Krebs cycle
The citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle or TCA cycle) is a series of chemical reactions in the mitochondria that breaks down acetate derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins into carbon dioxide to facilitate the production of ATP. Key steps include the condensation of acetyl-CoA with oxaloacetate to form citrate, oxidative decarboxylation reactions catalyzed by isocitrate dehydrogenase and alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, and the regeneration of oxaloacetate from succinate to complete the cycle. The cycle generates NADH and FADH2 that feed into oxidative phosphorylation to produce ATP.
Pentose phosphate pathway
The document summarizes the pentose phosphate pathway. It consists of an oxidative phase and a non-oxidative phase. The oxidative phase generates NADPH and ribulose 5-phosphate through oxidation reactions. The non-oxidative phase converts ribulose 5-phosphate into other 5-carbon sugars, regenerating glucose 6-phosphate while producing ribose 5-phosphate. The pathway provides reducing power in the form of NADPH for biosynthesis and maintains levels of the antioxidant glutathione.
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Glycolysis
Complete Glycolysis in short or easy way to understand
Glycolysis is derived from the Greek words glykys = sweet and lysis = splitting.
This pathway was described by EMBDEN,MEYERHOFF and PARNAS. Hence, it is also called EMP PATHWAY.
glycolysis is the process in which 1 molecule of glucose broken down to form 2 molecules of pyruvic acid.thus, 4 ATP molecules are synthesised and 2 ATP molecules are used during glycolysis. it occur in cytoplasm of animal cells,plant cell.
Citric acid cycle
The citric acid cycle (CAC) is a key metabolic pathway that occurs in the mitochondria of cells. It involves the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to carbon dioxide. During each turn of the cycle, NAD+ and FAD are reduced to NADH and FADH2 to generate energy in the form of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. Overall, the complete oxidation of one acetyl-CoA molecule in the CAC and respiratory chain produces 12 ATP molecules, capturing the energy from nutrients. The cycle plays a central role in cellular respiration and the production of energy.
Glycolysis
The document discusses glycolysis, which is the first stage of respiration. Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm of cells and involves splitting a molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate. It has two stages - phosphorylation and oxidation. In phosphorylation, glucose is phosphorylated using ATP to form glucose phosphate, which then splits to form two triose phosphates. In oxidation, the triose phosphates are oxidized to form two pyruvate molecules while collecting hydrogen ions to form NADH, and producing a net gain of two ATP molecules.
Electron transport chain
This document summarizes oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) and the electron transport chain in mitochondria. It states that OXPHOS is essential for generating ATP through the transfer of electrons from donor molecules like NADH to oxygen. It occurs through five protein complexes embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane: complex I-IV transfer electrons and pump protons out of the matrix, while complex V uses the proton gradient to drive ATP synthesis. The document provides an overview of each complex and how they facilitate electron transfer and proton pumping to create the electrochemical gradient used for ATP production.
PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY
The pentose phosphate pathway (PPP; also called the phosphogluconate pathway and the hexose monophosphate shunt) is a process that breaks down glucose-6-phosphate into NADPH and pentoses (5-carbon sugars) for use in downstream biological processes. There are two distinct phases in the pathway: the oxidative phase and the non-oxidative phase.
Glycogen metabolism
Glycogen is the storage form of carbohydrates in animals, analogous to starch in plants. Glycogen is synthesized from glucose through glycogenesis, which occurs predominantly in the liver and muscles, and stored glycogen is broken down to glucose through glycogenolysis. Glycogenesis is regulated by hormones like insulin, epinephrine, and glucagon that control intracellular cAMP levels and the phosphorylation state of glycogen synthase to convert it between its active and inactive forms.
Krebs cycle
The citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle or TCA cycle) is a series of chemical reactions in the mitochondria that breaks down acetate derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins into carbon dioxide to facilitate the production of ATP. Key steps include the condensation of acetyl-CoA with oxaloacetate to form citrate, oxidative decarboxylation reactions catalyzed by isocitrate dehydrogenase and alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, and the regeneration of oxaloacetate from succinate to complete the cycle. The cycle generates NADH and FADH2 that feed into oxidative phosphorylation to produce ATP.
Pentose phosphate pathway
The document summarizes the pentose phosphate pathway. It consists of an oxidative phase and a non-oxidative phase. The oxidative phase generates NADPH and ribulose 5-phosphate through oxidation reactions. The non-oxidative phase converts ribulose 5-phosphate into other 5-carbon sugars, regenerating glucose 6-phosphate while producing ribose 5-phosphate. The pathway provides reducing power in the form of NADPH for biosynthesis and maintains levels of the antioxidant glutathione.
Glycolysis
Cellular respiration involves a series of reactions that transform glucose into carbon dioxide, water, and ATP. It occurs in four main stages:
1. Glycolysis breaks down glucose into two pyruvate molecules, producing a small amount of ATP.
2. Pyruvate oxidation further breaks down the pyruvate in the mitochondria.
3. The Krebs cycle generates more ATP and produces electron carriers.
4. The electron transport chain uses the electron carriers to produce most of the ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
13 Biochemistry _ Glycolysis
Glycolysis is a catabolic pathway that breaks down glucose to extract energy. It occurs in 10 steps and involves 2 phases. In the first phase, energy is invested to phosphorylate and cleave glucose. In the second phase, the products are further broken down with a net generation of ATP. Glycolysis converts one glucose into two pyruvate molecules, produces 2 NADH, uses 2 ATP and generates a net of 2 ATP per glucose. This pathway is regulated by controlling the activity of three key enzymes: hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase.
Glycolysis
an illustrared summary for glycolysis process
Koolman, Color Atlas of Biochemistry, 2nd edition © 2005 Thieme Usage subject to terms and conditions of license. All right preserved.
Harper’s Illustrated Biochemistry, Twenty-Sixth Edition
LUBERT STRYER Biochemistry, Fifth Edition
Lehninger principles of biochemistry 4th ED.
BRS Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, and Genetics 6TH ED
Glycolysis ppt
This document provides information about glycolysis, including:
1) Glycolysis involves the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate, producing 2 ATP and 2 NADH. There are 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions in two stages.
2) Key regulatory enzymes include hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase which control the flux of glycolysis.
3) Under anaerobic conditions, NADH is regenerated through lactic acid or ethanol fermentation to allow glycolysis to continue.
Class 9 galactose metabolism
Dr. Dhiraj J. Trivedi Biochemistry lectures for UG medical students,
SDM College of Medical Sciences and Hospital, Dharwad, Karnataka, India.
Krebs cycle
The Krebs cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and is a series of chemical reactions that generates energy through the oxidation of acetate derived from carbohydrates, fats and proteins into carbon dioxide. It was discovered by Hans Adolf Krebs in 1937 and is also known as the citric acid cycle or tricarboxylic acid cycle. Each turn of the cycle produces ATP, NADH and FADH2 that are used in cellular respiration to produce more ATP for the cell. Acetyl CoA links glycolysis to the Krebs cycle by entering the cycle in the first step of condensing with oxaloacetate.
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate. It occurs in 10 steps with 2 ATP molecules invested at the start and a net production of 2 ATP and 2 NADH. It is an important pathway as it is common to both aerobic and anaerobic respiration and generates precursors for biosynthesis. Key regulatory enzymes include hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase which are inhibited when energy levels are high.
Glycolysis & gluconeogenesis
intro of glycolysis there cycle and step - function-significance-defination-glucogenesis cycle-significance of gluconeogenesis-function of gluconeogenesis-conclusion
ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN ' ETS '
The document discusses the process of cellular respiration and ATP generation in mitochondria. It describes how the electron transport chain, located in the inner mitochondrial membrane, facilitates the transfer of electrons from NADH and FADH2 through four complexes. As electrons move through the complexes, protons are pumped from the matrix to the intermembrane space, generating a proton gradient. ATP synthase then uses this proton gradient to phosphorylate ADP, producing ATP through chemiosmosis. In summary, the electron transport chain generates a proton gradient through the transfer of electrons, and ATP synthase uses this gradient to synthesize ATP from ADP through chemiosmosis.
Hmp shunt
The document summarizes the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP), also known as the phosphogluconate pathway or hexose monophosphate shunt. It has two main functions: providing NADPH and producing pentoses. The PPP occurs mainly in the liver, lactating mammary glands, and other tissues. It has an oxidative and non-oxidative phase and involves enzymes that oxidize glucose-6-phosphate to produce NADPH and pentose phosphates through a series of reactions. Deficiencies in enzymes in this pathway can cause hemolytic anemia, neurological disorders, and other conditions.
Biosynthesis of fatty acids
Fatty acid synthesis and degradation occur through different pathways. Synthesis takes place in the cytosol and requires NADPH and acetyl-CoA, adding two carbon units at a time from malonyl-CoA. Degradation occurs in the mitochondria using NADH and FADH2 to split acetyl-CoA units. Fatty acid synthesis is a multi-step process beginning with activation of acetyl-CoA followed by repeated elongation cycles using acetyl-ACP and malonyl-ACP substrates until palmitate is generated, then released by thioesterase.
Glycogen metabolism and it’s regulation
Glycogen is stored in the liver and muscles as a fuel reserve that can be easily mobilized to generate energy in the absence of oxygen. Glycogenesis is the process of glycogen synthesis from glucose, requiring enzymes like glycogen synthase. Glycogenolysis is the degradation of stored glycogen into glucose-6-phosphate and glucose by glycogen phosphorylase. The activities of glycogen synthase and phosphorylase are regulated by allosteric effectors and hormones like glucagon, epinephrine, and insulin to balance glycogen synthesis and breakdown. Genetic defects in glycogen metabolism can cause glycogen storage diseases.
Glycolysis and its regulation
Glycolysis is the pathway that breaks down glucose into pyruvate, generating ATP and NADH. It occurs in two phases: the preparatory phase prepares glucose for breakdown, while the payoff phase harvests energy through substrate-level phosphorylation to form ATP and NADH. Glycolysis ultimately yields two molecules of pyruvate, two ATP, and two NADH from each molecule of glucose. Pyruvate can then be further metabolized through aerobic or anaerobic pathways.
Glycolysis and gluconeogenesis
For More Medicine Free PPT - http://playnever.blogspot.com/
For Health benefits and medicine videos Subscribe youtube channel - https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLKg-H-sMh9G01zEg4YpndngXODW2bq92w
Gluconeogenesis
A detailed account of process of gluconeogenesis with mechanisms of important enzymes.We shall also talk extensively about why the process is not the reversible o glycolysis as is commonly perceived. Also focused on its regulatory aspect in conjunction with glycolysis.
Glycolysis
The document summarizes glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. It discusses the 10 steps of glycolysis which break down glucose into pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH. Key points include: glucose is trapped inside cells via phosphorylation; phosphofructokinase irreversibly phosphorylates fructose-6-phosphate and is the main regulatory point; and substrate-level phosphorylation occurs twice to produce ATP. Glycolysis allows organisms to produce energy without oxygen via fermentation of pyruvate to lactate.
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose to produce energy in the form of ATP. It consists of 10 steps where glucose is broken down and some of its carbon atoms are converted into pyruvate or lactic acid. In the process, a small amount of ATP is generated directly and the coenzymes NADH and FADH2 are produced, which will be used in later metabolic pathways to generate more ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. Glycolysis is unique in that it can function aerobically or anaerobically to produce energy for cells. The details of this important pathway were worked out in the first half of the 20th century.
Krebs cycle
The document discusses the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle or citric acid cycle. It provides three key points:
1. The TCA cycle involves the oxidation of acetyl-CoA to carbon dioxide and water and is the final common pathway for carbohydrates, fats, and amino acids.
2. The cycle generates energy in the form of ATP, NADH, and FADH2 and provides precursors for biosynthesis.
3. The cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and is tightly regulated by enzymes and cellular energy levels to integrate major metabolic pathways.
Biochemistry lecture notes metabolism_glycolysis & pentose phosphate pathway
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This document provides information on metabolic pathways and glycolysis. It discusses how metabolism involves enzyme-catalyzed reactions that make up metabolic pathways, converting precursors into products. Catabolic pathways break down molecules to release energy while anabolic pathways use this energy to build complex molecules. Glycolysis involves the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP along with NADH. The fate of pyruvate depends on oxygen conditions, being oxidized to acetyl-CoA aerobically or reduced to lactate or ethanol anaerobically.Lec03 glycolysis
This document provides an overview of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. It discusses the key reactions and enzymes involved in glycolysis, which converts glucose to pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP. Three reactions of glycolysis are irreversible. Under anaerobic conditions, pyruvate can be reduced to lactate. Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol of almost every living cell and was the first metabolic pathway to be studied in detail. Phosphorylation of intermediates traps molecules in the cell and provides energy for chemical reactions. The document also compares the enzymes hexokinase and glucokinase, and examines regulatory points in glycolysis.
Immunoprecipitation
Immunoprecipitation is a technique to isolate a specific protein from a mixture using an antibody that binds to that protein. There are two main methods: traditional IP and crosslink IP. Traditional IP recovers both the antibody and antigen, which can make identifying the antigen difficult if they have similar sizes. Crosslink IP covalently attaches the antibody to beads, allowing isolation of just the antigen without antibody contamination to easily identify and analyze the target protein. However, in some rare cases the traditional method may work better, such as if the antibody is unstable or the antibody-antigen binding is too strong for elution.
Glycolysis
1) Glycolysis is a series of 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions that converts glucose into pyruvate, generating ATP in the process.
2) The reactions are divided into two phases: the preparatory phase requires ATP investment to phosphorylate glucose, and the payoff phase generates a net production of ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation.
3) Overall, glycolysis oxidizes one glucose molecule to produce two pyruvate molecules, along with a net gain of two ATP per glucose molecule.
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Glycolysis
Cellular respiration involves a series of reactions that transform glucose into carbon dioxide, water, and ATP. It occurs in four main stages:
1. Glycolysis breaks down glucose into two pyruvate molecules, producing a small amount of ATP.
2. Pyruvate oxidation further breaks down the pyruvate in the mitochondria.
3. The Krebs cycle generates more ATP and produces electron carriers.
4. The electron transport chain uses the electron carriers to produce most of the ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
13 Biochemistry _ Glycolysis
Glycolysis is a catabolic pathway that breaks down glucose to extract energy. It occurs in 10 steps and involves 2 phases. In the first phase, energy is invested to phosphorylate and cleave glucose. In the second phase, the products are further broken down with a net generation of ATP. Glycolysis converts one glucose into two pyruvate molecules, produces 2 NADH, uses 2 ATP and generates a net of 2 ATP per glucose. This pathway is regulated by controlling the activity of three key enzymes: hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase.
Glycolysis
an illustrared summary for glycolysis process
Koolman, Color Atlas of Biochemistry, 2nd edition © 2005 Thieme Usage subject to terms and conditions of license. All right preserved.
Harper’s Illustrated Biochemistry, Twenty-Sixth Edition
LUBERT STRYER Biochemistry, Fifth Edition
Lehninger principles of biochemistry 4th ED.
BRS Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, and Genetics 6TH ED
Glycolysis ppt
This document provides information about glycolysis, including:
1) Glycolysis involves the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate, producing 2 ATP and 2 NADH. There are 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions in two stages.
2) Key regulatory enzymes include hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase which control the flux of glycolysis.
3) Under anaerobic conditions, NADH is regenerated through lactic acid or ethanol fermentation to allow glycolysis to continue.
Class 9 galactose metabolism
Dr. Dhiraj J. Trivedi Biochemistry lectures for UG medical students,
SDM College of Medical Sciences and Hospital, Dharwad, Karnataka, India.
Krebs cycle
The Krebs cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and is a series of chemical reactions that generates energy through the oxidation of acetate derived from carbohydrates, fats and proteins into carbon dioxide. It was discovered by Hans Adolf Krebs in 1937 and is also known as the citric acid cycle or tricarboxylic acid cycle. Each turn of the cycle produces ATP, NADH and FADH2 that are used in cellular respiration to produce more ATP for the cell. Acetyl CoA links glycolysis to the Krebs cycle by entering the cycle in the first step of condensing with oxaloacetate.
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate. It occurs in 10 steps with 2 ATP molecules invested at the start and a net production of 2 ATP and 2 NADH. It is an important pathway as it is common to both aerobic and anaerobic respiration and generates precursors for biosynthesis. Key regulatory enzymes include hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase which are inhibited when energy levels are high.
Glycolysis & gluconeogenesis
intro of glycolysis there cycle and step - function-significance-defination-glucogenesis cycle-significance of gluconeogenesis-function of gluconeogenesis-conclusion
ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN ' ETS '
The document discusses the process of cellular respiration and ATP generation in mitochondria. It describes how the electron transport chain, located in the inner mitochondrial membrane, facilitates the transfer of electrons from NADH and FADH2 through four complexes. As electrons move through the complexes, protons are pumped from the matrix to the intermembrane space, generating a proton gradient. ATP synthase then uses this proton gradient to phosphorylate ADP, producing ATP through chemiosmosis. In summary, the electron transport chain generates a proton gradient through the transfer of electrons, and ATP synthase uses this gradient to synthesize ATP from ADP through chemiosmosis.
Hmp shunt
The document summarizes the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP), also known as the phosphogluconate pathway or hexose monophosphate shunt. It has two main functions: providing NADPH and producing pentoses. The PPP occurs mainly in the liver, lactating mammary glands, and other tissues. It has an oxidative and non-oxidative phase and involves enzymes that oxidize glucose-6-phosphate to produce NADPH and pentose phosphates through a series of reactions. Deficiencies in enzymes in this pathway can cause hemolytic anemia, neurological disorders, and other conditions.
Biosynthesis of fatty acids
Fatty acid synthesis and degradation occur through different pathways. Synthesis takes place in the cytosol and requires NADPH and acetyl-CoA, adding two carbon units at a time from malonyl-CoA. Degradation occurs in the mitochondria using NADH and FADH2 to split acetyl-CoA units. Fatty acid synthesis is a multi-step process beginning with activation of acetyl-CoA followed by repeated elongation cycles using acetyl-ACP and malonyl-ACP substrates until palmitate is generated, then released by thioesterase.
Glycogen metabolism and it’s regulation
Glycogen is stored in the liver and muscles as a fuel reserve that can be easily mobilized to generate energy in the absence of oxygen. Glycogenesis is the process of glycogen synthesis from glucose, requiring enzymes like glycogen synthase. Glycogenolysis is the degradation of stored glycogen into glucose-6-phosphate and glucose by glycogen phosphorylase. The activities of glycogen synthase and phosphorylase are regulated by allosteric effectors and hormones like glucagon, epinephrine, and insulin to balance glycogen synthesis and breakdown. Genetic defects in glycogen metabolism can cause glycogen storage diseases.
Glycolysis and its regulation
Glycolysis is the pathway that breaks down glucose into pyruvate, generating ATP and NADH. It occurs in two phases: the preparatory phase prepares glucose for breakdown, while the payoff phase harvests energy through substrate-level phosphorylation to form ATP and NADH. Glycolysis ultimately yields two molecules of pyruvate, two ATP, and two NADH from each molecule of glucose. Pyruvate can then be further metabolized through aerobic or anaerobic pathways.
Glycolysis and gluconeogenesis
For More Medicine Free PPT - http://playnever.blogspot.com/
For Health benefits and medicine videos Subscribe youtube channel - https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLKg-H-sMh9G01zEg4YpndngXODW2bq92w
Gluconeogenesis
A detailed account of process of gluconeogenesis with mechanisms of important enzymes.We shall also talk extensively about why the process is not the reversible o glycolysis as is commonly perceived. Also focused on its regulatory aspect in conjunction with glycolysis.
Glycolysis
The document summarizes glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. It discusses the 10 steps of glycolysis which break down glucose into pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH. Key points include: glucose is trapped inside cells via phosphorylation; phosphofructokinase irreversibly phosphorylates fructose-6-phosphate and is the main regulatory point; and substrate-level phosphorylation occurs twice to produce ATP. Glycolysis allows organisms to produce energy without oxygen via fermentation of pyruvate to lactate.
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose to produce energy in the form of ATP. It consists of 10 steps where glucose is broken down and some of its carbon atoms are converted into pyruvate or lactic acid. In the process, a small amount of ATP is generated directly and the coenzymes NADH and FADH2 are produced, which will be used in later metabolic pathways to generate more ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. Glycolysis is unique in that it can function aerobically or anaerobically to produce energy for cells. The details of this important pathway were worked out in the first half of the 20th century.
Krebs cycle
The document discusses the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle or citric acid cycle. It provides three key points:
1. The TCA cycle involves the oxidation of acetyl-CoA to carbon dioxide and water and is the final common pathway for carbohydrates, fats, and amino acids.
2. The cycle generates energy in the form of ATP, NADH, and FADH2 and provides precursors for biosynthesis.
3. The cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and is tightly regulated by enzymes and cellular energy levels to integrate major metabolic pathways.
Biochemistry lecture notes metabolism_glycolysis & pentose phosphate pathway
Biochemistry lecture notes metabolism_glycolysis & pentose phosphate pathwayRengesh Balakrishnan
This document provides information on metabolic pathways and glycolysis. It discusses how metabolism involves enzyme-catalyzed reactions that make up metabolic pathways, converting precursors into products. Catabolic pathways break down molecules to release energy while anabolic pathways use this energy to build complex molecules. Glycolysis involves the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP along with NADH. The fate of pyruvate depends on oxygen conditions, being oxidized to acetyl-CoA aerobically or reduced to lactate or ethanol anaerobically.Lec03 glycolysis
This document provides an overview of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. It discusses the key reactions and enzymes involved in glycolysis, which converts glucose to pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP. Three reactions of glycolysis are irreversible. Under anaerobic conditions, pyruvate can be reduced to lactate. Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol of almost every living cell and was the first metabolic pathway to be studied in detail. Phosphorylation of intermediates traps molecules in the cell and provides energy for chemical reactions. The document also compares the enzymes hexokinase and glucokinase, and examines regulatory points in glycolysis.
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Biochemistry lecture notes metabolism_glycolysis & pentose phosphate pathway
Biochemistry lecture notes metabolism_glycolysis & pentose phosphate pathway
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Glycolysis
1) Glycolysis is a series of 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions that converts glucose into pyruvate, generating ATP in the process.
2) The reactions are divided into two phases: the preparatory phase requires ATP investment to phosphorylate glucose, and the payoff phase generates a net production of ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation.
3) Overall, glycolysis oxidizes one glucose molecule to produce two pyruvate molecules, along with a net gain of two ATP per glucose molecule.
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Glycolysis is a 10 step pathway that converts glucose into two pyruvate molecules and produces a net yield of two ATP molecules. It involves an energy-investment phase where ATP is used to phosphorylate intermediates and an energy-generation phase where ATP is produced from the oxidation of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. Glycolysis is the first step in both aerobic cellular respiration and anaerobic fermentation.
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El documento describe las técnicas de Southern blot, Northern blot y Western blot. Estas técnicas comienzan con la separación de moléculas (ADN, ARN o proteínas) mediante electroforesis en gel. Luego, las moléculas se transfieren a una membrana para identificar fragmentos específicos mediante sondas marcadas o anticuerpos. El Southern blot se usa para detectar secuencias de ADN, el Northern blot para detectar genes transcriptos, y el Western blot para detectar proteínas mediante anticuerpos.
Western blot.
El Western blot es una técnica que permite detectar proteínas específicas en una muestra mediante la separación de las proteínas por electroforesis en un gel y su posterior transferencia a una membrana. La membrana se incuba con anticuerpos primarios y secundarios para identificar las proteínas de interés, y las bandas se detectan comúnmente por quimioluminiscencia o fluorescencia.
Immunofluorescence PPT
Immunofluorescence is a technique that uses fluorescent-labeled antibodies to detect specific target antigens under a fluorescence microscope. There are two methods: direct immunofluorescence uses fluorescently-labeled antibodies directly on the sample, while indirect uses an unlabeled antibody with a fluorescent secondary antibody, allowing for brighter fluorescence. Immunofluorescence is useful for directly detecting pathogens or antigens in tissues or detecting circulating autoantibodies through indirect immunofluorescence. It provides a powerful diagnostic tool in clinical pathology.
Northern blotting
Northern blotting is a technique developed in 1977 to detect specific RNA sequences through electrophoresis, transfer to a membrane, and hybridization with a probe. RNA is extracted from tissue samples, separated by size via electrophoresis in an agarose gel, and transferred by capillary action to a nylon or nitrocellulose membrane where it binds. Probes are then hybridized to the RNA and detected through radiolabeling or fluorescence to study gene expression under different conditions.
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the first stage of respiration, where glucose is broken down into two pyruvate molecules. It occurs in two steps: first, glucose is phosphorylated using ATP to form glucose-6-phosphate; second, the glucose-6-phosphate is oxidized to form two pyruvate molecules, producing a net gain of two ATP molecules. The pyruvate molecules then enter the mitochondria for the link reaction, where they are converted into two acetyl CoA molecules to enter the Krebs cycle, with carbon dioxide and NADH also produced.
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Este documento describe los fundamentos y procedimientos de las pruebas de Western blot. Explica que el Western blot es una técnica analítica usada para detectar proteínas específicas mediante electroforesis y transferencia a membranas. Detalla los pasos del procedimiento, incluyendo la electroforesis, transferencia a membranas, incubación con anticuerpos y revelado. También explica conceptos como electroforesis, membranas de transferencia, anticuerpos primarios y secundarios. Finalmente, resume algunas de sus aplicaciones principales como diagnóstico e investigación.
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Similar to Glycolysis
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is a ten step pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, generating ATP and NADH. It occurs in the cytosol of cells and consists of two phases: the first phase converts glucose to two molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) and the second phase converts G3P to two pyruvates while producing ATP and NADH. Glycolysis generates two ATP per glucose during substrate-level phosphorylation. In aerobic conditions, pyruvate enters the citric acid cycle and NADH is oxidized through oxidative phosphorylation to generate additional ATP. In anaerobic conditions, NADH is regenerated by converting pyruvate to lactate through fermentation
Carbohydrate metabolism
This document discusses carbohydrate metabolism, specifically glycolysis. It begins by defining metabolism and its two main categories - catabolism and anabolism. It then describes the three main stages of carbohydrate catabolism. The bulk of the document provides a detailed explanation of the 10 steps of glycolysis, including enzymes, reactions, and regulation. It discusses the three fates of pyruvate and how other sugars can enter glycolysis. Finally, it summarizes glycogenolysis, the breakdown of glycogen into glucose-1-phosphate.
glycolysis.pdf
Glycolysis is a catabolic pathway that breaks down glucose to extract energy through the release of ATP. It occurs in 10 steps involving 9 enzymes. The first 5 steps are a preparatory phase requiring 2 ATP but generating intermediates. The last 5 steps generate 4 ATP and 2 NADH from the intermediates, resulting in a net gain of 2 ATP per glucose. Three key regulating enzymes are hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase which control the rate of glycolysis in response to cellular energy levels.
Glycolysis
To understand how the glycolytic pathway is converts glucose to pyruvate.
To understand conservation of chemical potential energy in the form of ATP and NADH.
To learn the intermediates, enzyme, and cofactors of the glycolytic pathway.
glycolysis pathway, energetics and significance.pdf
Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, generating a small amount of ATP. It occurs in two phases: the preparatory phase requires 2 ATP but yields no ATP, while the payoff phase generates 4 ATP from substrate-level phosphorylation but the net ATP gain is 2 per glucose. Glycolysis is a central pathway of glucose catabolism that occurs in the cytosol of all cells.
Glycolysis
Metabolic pathways can be catabolic, involving the breakdown of complexes, or anabolic, involving synthesis. Glycolysis is the catabolic pathway that breaks down glucose into pyruvate, producing a net yield of 2 ATP per glucose molecule. It occurs in two phases: the preparatory phase requires 2 ATP to phosphorylate and cleave glucose, while the payoff phase generates 4 ATP from substrate-level phosphorylation as the intermediates are oxidized to pyruvate. Overall, glycolysis oxidizes glucose to pyruvate, reduces NAD+ to NADH, and generates a small amount of ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation.
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the first step in the breakdown of glucose to extract energy. It involves 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions that ultimately convert one glucose molecule into two pyruvate molecules, producing a net yield of two ATP molecules, two NADH molecules, and energy. Key events include glucose phosphorylation, isomerization to fructose-6-phosphate, cleavage of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate into two trioses, and conversion of trioses into pyruvate with ATP generation. Glycolysis is regulated by three rate-limiting enzymes and substrate cycles to control flux.
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the central pathway for glucose degradation that produces energy in the form of ATP. During glycolysis, one molecule of glucose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvate, with the release of energy that is used to form two ATP and two NADH molecules. Glycolysis occurs in ten steps involving several enzymes and is the first metabolic pathway discovered, with the work of Louis Pasteur and others establishing its key reactions. The pathway allows for energy production under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions.
Glycolysis-general introduction and pathway with biochemical logic
Intermediates for other pathways
Biochemical logic
The glycolysis pathway can be separated into two phases
Glycolysis by Alishba Sadia
Glycolysis is a pathway that breaks down glucose into pyruvate, generating energy in the form of ATP. It occurs in two phases - the energy-requiring phase uses two ATP to phosphorylate glucose, and the energy-releasing phase generates two ATP and two NADH from the breakdown products. Alternative pathways like the pentose phosphate pathway and Entner-Doudoroff pathway also allow some bacteria to degrade glucose. Glycolysis ultimately produces two pyruvate, two ATP, and two NADH from each glucose molecule.
glycolysis.pdf
Glycolysis is a 10 step pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH. It occurs in two phases: the preparatory phase requires 2 ATP but produces no ATP, while the payoff phase produces a net of 2 ATP per glucose through substrate-level phosphorylation. Glycolysis is a central and ubiquitous pathway that breaks down glucose as an energy source in both aerobic and anaerobic conditions.
CARBOHYDRATES, GLYCOLYSIS, GLUCONEOGENESIS
Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH through substrate-level phosphorylation. It occurs in the cytosol through 10 steps, two of which generate ATP. The pathway ends with pyruvate which can then undergo fermentation or enter the citric acid cycle. Glycolysis is regulated by feedback inhibition and substrate availability. Gluconeogenesis is the reverse of glycolysis and produces glucose through anabolic reactions in the liver. Glycogen synthesis and breakdown allow for storage and mobilization of glucose as glycogen through glycogenesis and glycogenolysis respectively.
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1. Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate with the production of ATP. It occurs in 10 steps involving phosphorylation and substrate-level phosphorylation to produce ATP.
2. The pathway involves two phases - the preparatory phase requires 2 ATP but produces no ATP, while the payoff phase produces a net of 2 ATP per glucose molecule through substrate-level phosphorylation.
3. Overall, glycolysis oxidizes glucose to pyruvate, reduces NAD+ to NADH, and produces a net yield of 2 ATP and 2 NADH per molecule of glucose degraded.
Glycolysis.pdf
This document summarizes cellular respiration and the three main stages: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. Glycolysis involves the breakdown of glucose to pyruvate in the cytoplasm and generates a small amount of ATP. Pyruvate can then enter the mitochondria and be further oxidized through the Krebs cycle or fermented to lactate or ethanol. The overall goal is to extract energy from glucose and use it to produce ATP through the three stages of cellular respiration.
Unit 2 carbohydrate metabolism
Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle (TCA cycle) are two important metabolic pathways. Glycolysis involves 10 steps that convert glucose to pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP. The TCA cycle further oxidizes pyruvate and acetyl-CoA, producing carbon dioxide, NADH, FADH2, and more ATP. Both pathways occur in the cell's cytoplasm and mitochondria respectively, and are tightly regulated. They are critical for energy production and the synthesis of biomolecules in all living cells.
Unit 2 carbohydrate metabolism
The document discusses carbohydrate metabolism, specifically glycolysis and the citric acid cycle (TCA cycle).
It provides an overview of glycolysis, including its two phases and 10 steps that convert glucose to pyruvate, producing a net of two ATP per glucose molecule. The TCA cycle is summarized as a series of 10 reactions that fully oxidize acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, producing carbon dioxide, water, and high-energy electron carriers to fuel oxidative phosphorylation for ATP production. Key regulatory mechanisms and energetics are highlighted for both pathways.
Carbohydrate 2
Carbohydrates are the sugars, starches and fibers found in fruits, grains, vegetables and milk products. Though often maligned in trendy diets, carbohydrates — one of the basic food groups — are important to a healthy diet.
Glycolysis And Fermentation
Cellular respiration involves three main stages: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain. [1] Glycolysis takes place in the cytosol and involves the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP. [2] Pyruvate then enters the mitochondrion, where it is further oxidized in the Krebs cycle. [3] Electrons are transferred in the electron transport chain to produce most of the cell's ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
Glycolysis in Plants
The document provides information about plant respiration and glycolysis. It discusses that respiration is the process by which organic substances like carbohydrates are broken down, releasing carbon dioxide and water. There are two types of respiration - aerobic respiration, which uses oxygen and occurs in plant and animal cells, and anaerobic respiration, which does not use oxygen. Glycolysis is described as the first step of aerobic respiration, where glucose is broken down into two pyruvate molecules with production of ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation. The 10 steps of glycolysis are summarized, including investment of ATP in the preparatory phase and production of ATP in the payoff phase.
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students session
Students gathered for a session to discuss their studies and plans. Many shared challenges they faced with keeping up with their coursework while balancing other responsibilities. Ideas were exchanged on effective time management strategies and using campus resources to stay on track academically.
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This document provides information about lipid profiles and their normal ranges. It discusses how to collect and process blood specimens for lipid profiles. It then defines the components of a lipid profile including total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, triglycerides, and VLDL cholesterol. For each component, it provides the normal ranges and clinical significance of abnormal levels. It also briefly discusses apolipoprotein B, phospholipids, chylomicrons, and factors that can increase or decrease their levels.
Introduction of biochemistry
Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are the four major macromolecules that make up living things. Carbohydrates include sugars and starches and are used for energy storage. Lipids are composed of fatty acids and glycerol and function in energy storage, protection, and insulation. Proteins contain amino acids and perform a variety of functions including growth, energy production, and pH buffering. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA contain nucleotides and store and transmit genetic information that directs cellular functions. These macromolecules are formed through dehydration synthesis and broken down through hydrolysis.
BIOCHEMISTRY OF LIPIDS
Lipids are a group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, and fat-soluble vitamins. They serve important functions like storing energy, signaling, and as structural components of cell membranes. The document defines lipids and discusses their chemistry, classifications, structures, and biological importance. Key points covered include that lipids are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents, and include triglycerides, fatty acids, and other compounds.
ECOSANOIDS
Eicosanoids are oxygenation products of arachidonic acid (AA), a polyunsaturated fatty acid found in animal and plant cell membranes. AA is released from membranes by phospholipase A2 and metabolized via either the cyclooxygenase pathway to form prostaglandins, prostacyclin, and thromboxanes, or the lipoxygenase pathway to form leukotrienes. These eicosanoids are involved in various physiological functions including inflammation, smooth muscle tone, blood coagulation, reproduction, and GI secretion. Clinical applications of prostaglandins include female and male reproductive health, inflammation and immunity, gastrointestinal, respiratory, musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, ocular health, and cancer.
ROS ANTIOXIDENTS
Aerobic organisms continuously produce reactive free radicals through respiration, metabolism and phagocytosis. Approximately 1-2% of oxygen consumed is converted into superoxide radicals by the respiratory chain, one of the main sources of free radicals in cells. While oxygen is necessary for life, its partial reduction can produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) that damage living systems. The body has multiple antioxidant defenses to combat ROS, including superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase and vitamin C, which help convert ROS into less reactive species and protect biomolecules from oxidative damage.
LIPID CHEMISTRY
Lipids are a group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, and fat-soluble vitamins. They serve important functions like energy storage, signaling, and as structural components of cell membranes. The main classes of lipids are neutral fats/triglycerides (consisting of glycerol and fatty acids), phospholipids, and sterols. Fatty acids can be saturated or unsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acids like omega-3 and omega-6 are essential nutrients. Lipids are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents, and are an important energy source in animals and plants.
Carcinogen
This document discusses carcinogens and cancer. It defines cancer as abnormal cell growth that can invade other tissues and spread to other parts of the body. Carcinogens are substances that can cause cancer. Chemical carcinogens include aromatic hydrocarbons, aromatic amines, and chemicals containing epoxide, organohalogen, and nitroso groups. Carcinogens can damage DNA directly or require metabolic activation. Factors that influence cancer development include dose of exposure, lifestyle factors like smoking, and inherited conditions. Engineering controls, personal protective equipment, hygiene practices, and proper waste disposal can reduce exposure to carcinogens.
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This document discusses the importance of breastfeeding for infant health and development. It reviews several studies that show breastfeeding reduces the risk of morbidity and mortality from various infectious diseases like diarrhea, otitis media, neonatal sepsis, and respiratory infections. However, in many societies false beliefs interfere with breastfeeding and infants are commonly given prelacteal feeds or mixed feeding instead of being exclusively breastfed. The purpose of the study described is to examine the patterns of infectious diseases in non-breastfed infants compared to breastfed infants admitted to the hospital.
Differences of plasma osmolarity
This document describes a study comparing plasma osmolarity in healthy breastfed and non-breastfed infants. The study included breastfed and non-breastfed infants between 1-6 months of age. Blood samples were collected and analyzed for various biomarkers including glucose, BUN, sodium, potassium, total protein, and albumin levels. Plasma osmolarity was then directly estimated and calculated based on biomarker levels. Results showed breastfed infants had significantly lower glucose, BUN, and plasma osmolarity levels compared to non-breastfed infants. The study concluded breastfeeding provides a lower solute load compared to formula feeding, resulting in lower plasma osmolarity in healthy breastfed infants.
Introdction of metabolism
1. Metabolism refers to the chemical processes that take place in living organisms to sustain life. It includes breaking down nutrients into smaller units and building up complex molecules.
2. Glucose, fats, and proteins are broken down through various pathways to ultimately form acetyl CoA, which enters the citric acid cycle to generate energy in the form of ATP. Less oxygen results in lactic acid formation from glucose.
3. The electron transport chain uses oxygen to convert products of the citric acid cycle into large amounts of ATP, the main energy currency of cells. Fatty acids yield more ATP than glucose due to their carbon-hydrogen bonds.
TRINITY COLLEGE ROBOTIC COMPETITION
The Tufts Robotics Club attended the Trinity College Fire Fighting Robot Contest where they won both the team and individual categories of the Olympiad tournament. This marked the club's fourth win since 2014. They competed in both the mechanical robot competition and trivia-based Olympiad. For the robot competition, Tufts engineered a robot that followed the right wall of the maze and used a fire extinguisher to put out a candle, navigating the maze faster than other teams. In the Olympiad, they demonstrated their strong theoretical engineering knowledge, with sophomore Faizan Muhammad winning individually. The success at this competition aims to attract new recruits to the club.
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Conference proceedings
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social media useage
This study examined the usage of social media by students at the FJMU Lahore. A questionnaire was distributed to 415 students to gather data on their social media usage patterns and behaviors. The results found that 95.9% of students used social media daily, with 77% spending 1-2 hours per day on social media. Major purposes of usage were communication (94%) and entertainment (93%), though 46% also used it for studying. Students reported social media could waste time and distract from studies, but could also be useful for sharing medical videos, knowledge and study guidelines. The study concludes social media distracts students and encourages more non-educational activities, so students should utilize it more for academic purposes and limit entertainment usage
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Dr. Muhammad Mustansar has achieved international recognition for his work. He holds a world record and has had his research published in international posters and books. His accomplishments demonstrate expertise in his field at a global level.
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Glycolysis
- 2. Glycolysis
- 3. * Anaeorbic process * Converts hexose to two pyruvates * Generates 2 ATP and 2 NADH * For certain cells in the brain and eye, glycolysis is the only ATP generating pathway Glucose+2ADP+2NAD++2Pi -> 2pyruvate+2ATP+2NADH+2H++2H20
- 4. Glycolysis • Essentially all cells carry out glycolysis • Ten reactions - same in all cells - but rates differ • Two phases: – First phase converts glucose to two G-3-P – Second phase produces two pyruvates • Products are pyruvate, ATP and NADH • Three possible fates for pyruvate
- 5. Phase I: Cleavage of 1 hexose to 2 triose
- 6. Phase II: Generation of 2 ATPs, 2 NADH and 2 Pyruvates
- 7. Hexose Kinase • 1st step in glycolysis; G large, negative • This is a priming reaction - ATP is consumed here in order to get more later • ATP makes the phosphorylation of glucose spontaneous
- 9. Hexokinase also functions in other processes Not 1st committed step in glycolysis Glucose import
- 10. Directing glucose to other pathways
- 11. * Two major forms hexokinase (all cells) & glucokinase (liver) * Km for hexokinase is 10-6 to 10-4 M; cell has 4 X 10-3 M glucose * Km for glucokinase is 10-2 M only turns on when cell is rich in glucose
- 12. * Glucokinase functions when glucose levels are high to sequester glucose in the liver. * Hexokinase is regulated - allosterically inhibited by (product) glucose-6-P
- 13. Rx 2: Phosphoglucoisomerase • Uses open chain structure as substrate • Near-equilibrium rxn (reversible) • Enzyme is highly stereospecific (doesn’t work with epimers of glucose-6-phosphate
- 15. * Why does this reaction occur?? *next step (phosphorylation at C-1) would be tough for hemiacetal -OH, but easy for primary -OH *isomerization activates C-3 for cleavage in aldolase reaction
- 16. Rx 3: Phosphofructokinase PFK is the committed step in glycolysis! • The second priming reaction of glycolysis • Committed step and large, -DG – means PFK is highly regulated • b-D-fructose-6-phosphate is substrate for rxn
- 18. *ATP inhibits, AMP reverses inhibition *Citrate is also an allosteric inhibitor *Fructose-2,6-bisphosphate is allosteric activator *PFK increases activity when energy status is low *PFK decreases activity when energy status is high
- 19. Rx 4: Aldolase • Hexose cleaved to form two trioses • C1 thru C3 of F1,6-BP -> DHAP • C4 thru C6 -> G-3-P • Near-equilibrium rxn • Position of carbonyl group determines which bond cleaved. • If Glucose-6 –P was the substrate would end up with 2 carbon and 4 carbon product
- 21. Rx 5: Triose Phosphate Isomerase (TPI) • Near equilibrium rxn • Conversion of DHAP to G-3-P by TPI maintains steady state [G-3-P] • Triose phosphate isomerase is a near-perfect enzyme (Kcat/Km near diffusion limit
- 24. Glycolysis - Second Phase Metabolic energy produces 4 ATP • Net ATP yield for glycolysis is two ATP • Second phase involves two very high energy phosphate intermediates • . – 1,3 BPG – Phosphoenolpyruvate
- 25. Phase II: Generation of 2 ATPs, 2 NADH and 2 Pyruvates
- 26. * G3P is oxidized and phosphorylated to 1,3-BPG * Near equilibrium rxn * Pi is used as phosphate donor * C1 phosphoryl group has high group transfer potential, used to phosphorylate Adp to ATP in next step of glycolysis
- 27. • Arsenate can replace phosphate in rxn (results in lower ATP) • NADH generated in this reaction is reoxidized by respiratory electron transport chain (generates ATP)
- 29. * ATP synthesis from a high-energy phosphate * This is referred to as "substrate-level phosphorylation" * Although has large negative DGo’ (-18 kJ/mole) because PGK operates at equilibrium in vivo, the overall DG is 0.1 Kj/mole and is a near-equilibrium rxn.
- 30. • 2,3-BPG (for hemoglobin) is made by circumventing the PGK reaction
- 31. * 2,3-BPG acts to maintain Hb in low oxygen affinity form * RBC contain high levels of 2,3 BPG (4 to 5 mM)
- 33. Rx 8: Phosphoglycerate Mutase • Phosphoryl group moves from C-3 to C-2 • Mutases are isomerases that transfer phosphates from one hydroxyl to another • Involves phosphate-histidine intermediate
- 36. Rx 9: Enolase • Near equilibrium rxn • "Energy content" of 2-PG and PEP are similar • Enolase just rearranges to a form from which more energy can be released in hydrolysis • Requires Mg2+ for activity, one bings Carboxyl group of substrate the other involved in catalysis.
- 38. Rx 10: Pyruvate Kinase • Substrate level phosphorylation generates second ATP • Large, negative G - regulation! • Allosterically activated by AMP, F-1,6-bisP • Allosterically inhibited by ATP and acetylCoA