Glycogen is the storage form of carbohydrates in animals, analogous to starch in plants. Glycogen is synthesized from glucose through glycogenesis, which occurs predominantly in the liver and muscles, and stored glycogen is broken down to glucose through glycogenolysis. Glycogenesis is regulated by hormones like insulin, epinephrine, and glucagon that control intracellular cAMP levels and the phosphorylation state of glycogen synthase to convert it between its active and inactive forms.
Glycogenolysis, process by which glycogen, the primary carbohydrate stored in the liver and muscle cells of animals, is broken down into glucose to provide immediate energy and to maintain blood glucose levels during fasting. These slides will provide you detail explanation of Glycogenolysis.
Gluconeogenesis: Defined as biosynthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors
-Gluconeogenesis: an intro
-Thermodynamic Barriers (Each barrier detail explanation)
- Energetics of gluconeogenesis
-Substrates of gluconeogenesis (each substrate and pathway explained)
-Regulation of Gluconeogenesis, hormonal and transcriptional regulation
Pentose phosphate pathway is also called Hexose monophosphate pathway/ HMP shunt/ Phosphogluconate pathway.
It is an alternative route for the metabolism of glucose.
It is more complex pathway than glycolysis.
It is more anabolic in nature.
It takesplace in cytosol.
The tissues such as liver, adipose tissue, adrenal gland, erythrocytes,testes and lactating mammary gland are highly active in HMP shunt.
It concern with the biosynthesis of NADPH and pentoses.
Glycogen is the storage form of Glucose which maintain the blood glucose level under various condition. Glycogen Metabolism is the important pathway of carbohydrate metabolism which gives the information about the glycogen synthesis (Glycogenesis), Glycogen breakdown (Glucogenolysis). Glycogen metabolism also gives the information how this pathway is regulated. Their are various diseases which are associated with this metabolism, commonly known as Glycogen storage diseases.
Glycogenolysis, process by which glycogen, the primary carbohydrate stored in the liver and muscle cells of animals, is broken down into glucose to provide immediate energy and to maintain blood glucose levels during fasting. These slides will provide you detail explanation of Glycogenolysis.
Gluconeogenesis: Defined as biosynthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors
-Gluconeogenesis: an intro
-Thermodynamic Barriers (Each barrier detail explanation)
- Energetics of gluconeogenesis
-Substrates of gluconeogenesis (each substrate and pathway explained)
-Regulation of Gluconeogenesis, hormonal and transcriptional regulation
Pentose phosphate pathway is also called Hexose monophosphate pathway/ HMP shunt/ Phosphogluconate pathway.
It is an alternative route for the metabolism of glucose.
It is more complex pathway than glycolysis.
It is more anabolic in nature.
It takesplace in cytosol.
The tissues such as liver, adipose tissue, adrenal gland, erythrocytes,testes and lactating mammary gland are highly active in HMP shunt.
It concern with the biosynthesis of NADPH and pentoses.
Glycogen is the storage form of Glucose which maintain the blood glucose level under various condition. Glycogen Metabolism is the important pathway of carbohydrate metabolism which gives the information about the glycogen synthesis (Glycogenesis), Glycogen breakdown (Glucogenolysis). Glycogen metabolism also gives the information how this pathway is regulated. Their are various diseases which are associated with this metabolism, commonly known as Glycogen storage diseases.
This powerpoint gives detailed description and clear view about Glycogenesis and glycogenolysis . these two metabolic actions are very important for regulating blood glucose levels. it also explains about the glycogen storage
Carbohydrates are the sugars, starches and fibers found in fruits, grains, vegetables and milk products. Though often maligned in trendy diets, carbohydrates — one of the basic food groups — are important to a healthy diet.
Metabolism (/məˈtæbəlɪzəm/, from Greek: μεταβολή metabolē, "change") is the set of life-sustaining chemical reactions in organisms. The three main purposes of metabolism are: the conversion of food to energy to run cellular processes; the conversion of food/fuel to building blocks for proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and some carbohydrates; and the elimination of nitrogenous wastes. These enzyme-catalyzed reactions allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. (The word metabolism can also refer to the sum of all chemical reactions that occur in living organisms, including digestion and the transport of substances into and between different cells, in which case the above described set of reactions within the cells is called intermediary metabolism or intermediate metabolism).
Metabolic reactions may be categorized as catabolic - the breaking down of compounds (for example, the breaking down of glucose to pyruvate by cellular respiration); or anabolic - the building up (synthesis) of compounds (such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids). Usually, catabolism releases energy, and anabolism consumes energy.
Multiple Choice Questions with Explanatory Answers on Chemistry of Carbohydrates for Medical, Biochemistry and Biology students - Chapter 1 of Multiple Choice Questions in Biochemistry by RC Gupta
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
- WOMEN’S HEALTH: FERTILITY PRESERVATION
- WHAT’S NEW IN THE TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS,
ONCOLOGICAL AND INFLAMMATORY SKIN DISEASES?
- ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ETHICS
- GENE THERAPY
- BEYOND BORDERS: GLOBAL INITIATIVES FOR DEMOCRATIZING LIFE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGIES AND PROMOTING ACCESS TO HEALTHCARE
- ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN LIFE SCIENCES
- Prix Galien International Awards Ceremony
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
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Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
The hemodynamic and autonomic determinants of elevated blood pressure in obes...
Glycogen metabolism
1. Glycogen Metabolism
R. C. Gupta
Professor and Head
Department of Biochemistry
National Institute of Medical Sciences
Jaipur, India
2. Glycogen is the form in which carbohydrates
are stored in animals
The function of glycogen is analogous to
that of starch in plants
Therefore, it is also known as animal starch
EMB-RCG
3. Glycogen is a branched macromolecule
made up of a large number of glucose units
In linear portions, glucose units are joined
by a-1,4-glycosidic bonds
Branches arise from linear portions by
a-1,6-glycosidic bonds
EMB-RCG
5. Glycogen is synthesized from glucose
Synthesis of glycogen is known as
glycogenesis
Glycogen is broken down to glucose
EMB-RCG
Breakdown of glycogen is known as
glycogenolysis
6. Glycogenesis is the pathway for synthesis
of glycogen
It is a mechanism by which excess glucose
is stored in the tissues
It occurs in almost all the tissues but the
predominant sites are liver and muscles
EMB-RCG
Glycogenesis
7. After a meal rich
in carbohydrate։
Glycogenesis occurs rapidly in liver
and muscles
Glycogen content of liver may go up
to 5% of wet tissue weight
Glycogen content of muscles can go
up to 1% of wet tissue weight
8. Glycogenesis occurs in the cytosol
Glycogenesis begins with a small glycogen
molecule known as glycogen primer
The core of the primer is made up of a
protein, glycogenin
A glucose molecule is attached to
glycogenin via a tyrosine residue
9. Successive glucose units are added to the
primer until a large glycogen molecule is
formed
Glucose is first converted into glucose-6-
phosphate
Then, glucose-6-phosphate is converted into
glucose-1-phosphate by phosphoglucomutase
10.
11. Glucose-1-phosphate reacts with uridine
tri-phosphate (UTP) to form uridine
diphosphate glucose (UDPG)
This reaction is catalysed by UDPG pyro-
phosphorylase
12.
13. Inorganic pyrophosphate is immediately
hydrolysed into inorganic phosphate
Due to release of free energy, this
reaction is functionally irreversible
PPi + H2O
Inorganic
pyrophosphatase
2 Pi
14. UDPG reacts with glycogen primer
UDP is released and glucose is added to
the glycogen primer
Glycogen primer having n glucose
units would have n+1 glucose units after
the reaction
15. Carbon 1 of the new glucose unit forms a
glycosidic bond with carbon 4 of the last
glucose unit
The reaction is catalysed by glycogen
synthetase
UDPG+(Glucose)n
Glycogen
synthetase
UDP+(Glucose)n+1
16. Addition of glucose units to the glycogen
primer continues until the chain contains
about eleven glucose units
Then, amylo-1,4 1,6-transglucosidase
detaches a fragment of 6-7 glucose units
from the growing end
17.
18. The two branches start growing again by
addition of glucose units by a-1,4-glycosidic
bonds catalysed by glycogen synthetase
When the branches contain about 11
glucose units, branching enzyme acts again
and creates more branches
19. The process of lengthening and branching
continues until a large and highly branched
glycogen molecule is formed
Two branch points are separated by 8-12
glucose units
20. Regulation
The regulatory enzyme is glycogen synthetase
which is regulated by covalent modification
The covalent modification is addition or
removal of phosphate
The enzyme exists in two forms – glycogen
synthetase a and glycogen synthetase b
21. Glycogen synthetase a is the dephospho-
rylated and active form of the enzyme
Glycogen synthetase b is the phosphorylated
and inactive form
Addition of phosphate converts glycogen
synthetase a into glycogen synthetase b
Removal of phosphate converts glycogen
synthetase b into glycogen synthetase a
22. Phosphate is added to glycogen synthe-
tase a by protein kinase A
Phosphate is removed from glycogen
synthetase b by protein phosphatase-1
Protein kinase A and protein phosphatase-
1 are regulated by cAMP
EMB-RCG
23. Intracellular concentration of cAMP is
regulated by some hormones
So, the ultimate regulators of glycogenesis
are epinephrine, glucagon and insulin
EMB-RCG
Epinephrine and glucagon increase the
concentration of cAMP
Insulin decreases the concentration of
cAMP
24.
25. cAMP is the regulator of protein kinase A
(cAMP-dependent protein kinase)
Protein kinase A is a tetramer made up of two
regulatory (R) and two catalytic (C) subunits
The tetrameric form is inactive as regulatory
subunits inhibit the catalytic subunits
26. When cAMP concentration rises, two cAMP
molecules bind to each regulatory subunit
The tetramer dissociates into monomers
The catalytic subunits are no longer inhibited
by regulatory subunits
27.
28. Active protein kinase A phosphorylates
glycogen synthetase
Phosphorylation converts active glycogen
synthetase a into inactive glycogen
synthetase b
Active protein kinase A also phospho-
rylates a protein known as inhibitor-1
29. The phosphorylated form of inhibitor-1 is
active
It inhibits protein phosphatase-1
This decreases the conversion of
glycogen synthetase b into glycogen
synthetase a
30. Thus, active protein kinase A:
Increases the conversion of active
glycogen synthetase into its inactive form
Decreases the conversion of inactive
glycogen synthetase into its active form
The net result is a decrease in glycogenesis
31. The reverse occurs when the concentration
of cAMP is low
The rate of glycogenesis is increased
Thus, the rate of glycogenesis is regulated
by the intracellular concentration of cAMP
34. Glycogenolysis is breakdown of
glycogen
It is not a reversal of glycogenesis but
is a separate pathway
Glycogenolysis occurs in all the
tissues in which glycogen is stored
Glycogenolysis
35. Glycogen is stored mainly in liver and
muscles
These two are the major sites of glyco-
genolysis
36. The purpose of hepatic glycogenolysis is to
maintain the blood glucose concentration
When blood glucose level decreases, glyco-
genolysis occurs in liver
Glucose is released into circulation, and
blood glucose level is restored
37. Glycogen cannot be converted into free
glucose in muscles
In muscles, glycogenolysis occurs mainly
to provide energy for muscle contraction
38. The key enzyme of glycogenolysis is
phosphorylase (glycogen phosphorylase)
It catalyses phosphorolytic removal of glucose
from glycogen as glucose-1-phosphate
This enzyme hydrolyses the terminal a-1,4-
glycosidic bonds
40. Large number of branches in the glycogen
molecule facilitate rapid glycogenolysis
Terminal glucose units on all the branches
can be split off simultaneously
Energy present in the glycosidic bond is
conserved by incorporating a phosphate
group into the liberated glucose molecule
41. The stepwise removal of glucose units from
each branch continues until only four glucose
units are left distal to a branch point
The molecule so formed is known as limit
dextrin
42. After the formation of limit dextrin, oligo-
(a-1,4 a–1,4) - glucan transferase acts
It transfers a trisaccharide unit from one
branch to another
Now, one branch has now got seven glucose
units distal to the branch point
The other has only one glucose unit linked to
the main chain by a-1,6-glycosidic bond
43.
44. Now, the single glucose unit attached to the
chain by 1,6-glycosidic linkage is split off
This reaction is catalysed by amylo-1,6-
glucosidase (debranching enzyme)
This is not a phosphorolytic removal
The glucose unit is liberated as free glucose
45.
46. The process of hydrolysis of 1,4- and 1,6-
glycosidic bonds continues
It ends only when a very small glycogen
molecule is left
This small molecule is used as glyocogen
primer for the next round of glycogenesis
47. The products of glycogenolysis are
glucose-1-phosphate and free glucose
These are formed in approximately 10:1
ratio
This is because branching occurs roughly
after every 10 glucose units
48. Glucose-1-phosphate is converted into
glucose-6-posphate by phosphoglucomutase
This reaction is reversible
Most tissues possess glucose-6-phosphatase
This splits off inorganic phosphate from
glucose-6-phosphate to liberate free glucose
49.
50. Thus, the end product of glycogenolysis is
glucose in most of the tissues
An exception is muscle which lacks
glucose-6-phosphatase
In muscle, the end product is glucose-6-
phosphate
51. Glycogenolysis occurs in muscles when
energy is required for muscle contraction
Glucose-6-phosphate directly enters the
glycolytic pathway
The product is lactate if the conditions are
anaerobic
52. The regulatory enzyme is phosphorylase
It is regulated by covalent modification
The covalent modification is addition or
removal of phosphate
Regulation
53. Phosphorylase can exist in two forms:
Phosphorylase a (phospho-
phosphorylase)
Phosphorylase b
(dephospho-phosphorylase)
Phosphorylase a is the active form while
phosphorylase b is inactive
54. The liver and muscle enzymes are slightly
different from each other
In muscle, phosphorylase is a dimer, made
up of two identical subunits
Each subunit contains one molecule of
pyridoxal phosphate
Each subunit has got a serine residue which
can be phosphorylated
55. Phosphorylase b is a dimer in which the
serine residues are not phosphorylated
Phosphorylase b can be phosphorylated to
phosphorylase a by phosphorylase kinase
Phosphorylase kinase contains four types
of subunits – a, b, g and d
56.
57. Phosphorylase kinase can exist in an
inactive form and an active form
The inactive form is phosphorylase kinase
b; active form is phosphorylase kinase a
In the b form, the a and b subunits are not
phosphorylated, and d subunits lack Ca+2
58.
59. Phosphorylase kinase becomes fully
active when a and b subunits are
phosphorylated
Phosphorylation is catalysed by protein
kinase A
60.
61. Protein kinase A becomes active when
cAMP concentration increases
cAMP concentration is increased by epi-
nephrine in muscles and by glucagon in
liver
The concentration is decreased by insulin
in both muscles and liver
62.
63. Active phosphorylase kinase phospho-
rylates phosphorylase b
This converts inactive phosphorylase b
into active phosphorylase a
Phosphorylase a is dephosphorylated to
phosphorylase b by protein phosphatase-1
64. Protein kinase A also activates inhibitor-1 by
phosphorylating it
Inhibitor-1 inhibits protein phosphatase-1
This decreases the conversion of phospho-
rylase a into phosphorylase b
65.
66. Thus, epinephrine and glucagon activate
phosphorylase
This increases the rate of glycogenolysis
Insulin has an opposite effect
It causes inactivation of phosphorylase
and decreases glycogenolysis