Carbohydrates are the sugars, starches and fibers found in fruits, grains, vegetables and milk products. Though often maligned in trendy diets, carbohydrates — one of the basic food groups — are important to a healthy diet.
Gluconeogenesis: Defined as biosynthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors
-Gluconeogenesis: an intro
-Thermodynamic Barriers (Each barrier detail explanation)
- Energetics of gluconeogenesis
-Substrates of gluconeogenesis (each substrate and pathway explained)
-Regulation of Gluconeogenesis, hormonal and transcriptional regulation
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Gluconeogenesis: Defined as biosynthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors
-Gluconeogenesis: an intro
-Thermodynamic Barriers (Each barrier detail explanation)
- Energetics of gluconeogenesis
-Substrates of gluconeogenesis (each substrate and pathway explained)
-Regulation of Gluconeogenesis, hormonal and transcriptional regulation
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This is the glycolysis component of Bioc (chem) 361 at UAE University. Some from Campbell 6th ed and the rest from General, Organic, and Biochemistry, 5th edition (2007), by K.J.Denniston, J.J.Topping, and R.L.Caret.
To understand how the glycolytic pathway is converts glucose to pyruvate.
To understand conservation of chemical potential energy in the form of ATP and NADH.
To learn the intermediates, enzyme, and cofactors of the glycolytic pathway.
A detailed account of process of gluconeogenesis with mechanisms of important enzymes.We shall also talk extensively about why the process is not the reversible o glycolysis as is commonly perceived. Also focused on its regulatory aspect in conjunction with glycolysis.
This is the glycolysis component of Bioc (chem) 361 at UAE University. Some from Campbell 6th ed and the rest from General, Organic, and Biochemistry, 5th edition (2007), by K.J.Denniston, J.J.Topping, and R.L.Caret.
To understand how the glycolytic pathway is converts glucose to pyruvate.
To understand conservation of chemical potential energy in the form of ATP and NADH.
To learn the intermediates, enzyme, and cofactors of the glycolytic pathway.
A detailed account of process of gluconeogenesis with mechanisms of important enzymes.We shall also talk extensively about why the process is not the reversible o glycolysis as is commonly perceived. Also focused on its regulatory aspect in conjunction with glycolysis.
intro of glycolysis there cycle and step - function-significance-defination-glucogenesis cycle-significance of gluconeogenesis-function of gluconeogenesis-conclusion
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM : GLYCOLYSIS
Glycolysis is the first step in the breakdown of glucose to extract energy for cellular metabolism. Glycolysis consists of an energy-requiring phase followed by an energy-releasing phase.
What is glycolysis?
Glycolysis is a series of reactions that extract energy from glucose by splitting it into two three-carbon molecules called pyruvates. Glycolysis is an ancient metabolic pathway, meaning that it evolved long ago, and it is found in the great majority of organisms alive today^{2,3}
2,3
start superscript, 2, comma, 3, end superscript.
In organisms that perform cellular respiration, glycolysis is the first stage of this process. However, glycolysis doesn’t require oxygen, and many anaerobic organisms—organisms that do not use oxygen—also have this pathway.
Virus, infectious agent of small size and simple composition that can multiply only in living cells of animals, plants, or bacteria. The name is from a Latin word meaning “slimy liquid” or “poison.”
Mycology is the branch of biology concerned with the study of fungi, including their genetic and biochemical properties, their taxonomy and their use to humans as a source for tinder, traditional medicine, food, and entheogens, as well as their dangers, such as toxicity or infection.
In the late 16th century several Dutch lens makers designed devices that magnified objects, but in 1609 Galileo Galilei perfected the first device known as a microscope. Dutch spectacle makers Zaccharias Janssen and Hans Lipperhey are noted as the first men to develop the concept of the compound microscope.
In the late 16th century several Dutch lens makers designed devices that magnified objects, but in 1609 Galileo Galilei perfected the first device known as a microscope. Dutch spectacle makers Zaccharias Janssen and Hans Lipperhey are noted as the first men to develop the concept of the compound microscope.
Microbial Spoilage include the contamination of Pharmaceutical products with the microbes which lead to spoilage of the product affecting Drug safety and quality, and is not intended for use. Shortly Microbial Spoilage is defined as deterioration of pharmaceutical products by the contaminant microbe.
In the late 16th century several Dutch lens makers designed devices that magnified objects, but in 1609 Galileo Galilei perfected the first device known as a microscope. Dutch spectacle makers Zaccharias Janssen and Hans Lipperhey are noted as the first men to develop the concept of the compound microscope.
Bacteria are a type of biological cell. They constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a number of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals. Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are present in most of its habitats
Microbiology is the study of organisms that are usually too small to be seen by the unaided eye; it employs techniques—such as sterilization and the use of culture media—that are required to isolate and grow these microorganisms.
Bacteria have existed from very early in the history of life on Earth. Bacteria fossils discovered in rocks date from at least the Devonian Period (419.2 million to 358.9 million years ago), and there are convincing arguments that bacteria have been present since early Precambrian time, about 3.5 billion years ago.
Bacteria are microscopic, single-celled organisms that thrive in diverse environments. These organisms can live in soil, the ocean and inside the human gut. Humans' relationship with bacteria is complex. Sometimes bacteria lend us a helping hand, such as by curdling milk into yogurt or helping with our digestion
Bacteria are microscopic, single-celled organisms that thrive in diverse environments. These organisms can live in soil, the ocean and inside the human gut. Humans' relationship with bacteria is complex. Sometimes bacteria lend us a helping hand, such as by curdling milk into yogurt or helping with our digestion
Diuretics, also called water pills, are medications designed to increase the amount of water and salt expelled from the body as urine. There are three types of prescription diuretics. They're often prescribed to help treat high blood pressure, but they're used for other conditions as well.
The main site of diuretic action is well established for the different groups of diuretics: carbonic anhydrase inhibitors act on the proximal tubulus, loop diuretics on the diluting segment, thiazides on the cortical diluting segment/distal tubulus, and potassium-sparing agents on distal tubulus/collecting ducts.
Diuretics, also called water pills, are medications designed to increase the amount of water and salt expelled from the body as urine. There are three types of prescription diuretics. They’re often prescribed to help treat high blood pressure, but they’re used for other conditions as well.
Proton-pump inhibitors are a group of medications whose main action is a pronounced and long-lasting reduction of stomach acid production. Within the class of medications, there is no clear evidence that one agent works better than another. They are the most potent inhibitors of acid secretion available.
The main site of diuretic action is well established for the different groups of diuretics: carbonic anhydrase inhibitors act on the proximal tubulus, loop diuretics on the diluting segment, thiazides on the cortical diluting segment/distal tubulus, and potassium-sparing agents on distal tubulus/collecting ducts.
In conclusion, the present study found that esomeprazole 40 mg daily may be more effective than either omeprazole 20 mg daily, pantoprazole 40 mg daily or lansoprazole 30 mg daily for the rapid relief of heartburn symptoms in patients with endoscopically proven reflux esophagitis.
Mechanisms of diuretic drugs. Diuretic drugs increase urine output by the kidney (i.e., promote diuresis). This is accomplished by altering how the kidney handles sodium. If the kidney excretes more sodium, then water excretion will also increase.
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
Acute scrotum is a general term referring to an emergency condition affecting the contents or the wall of the scrotum.
There are a number of conditions that present acutely, predominantly with pain and/or swelling
A careful and detailed history and examination, and in some cases, investigations allow differentiation between these diagnoses. A prompt diagnosis is essential as the patient may require urgent surgical intervention
Testicular torsion refers to twisting of the spermatic cord, causing ischaemia of the testicle.
Testicular torsion results from inadequate fixation of the testis to the tunica vaginalis producing ischemia from reduced arterial inflow and venous outflow obstruction.
The prevalence of testicular torsion in adult patients hospitalized with acute scrotal pain is approximately 25 to 50 percent
NVBDCP.pptx Nation vector borne disease control programSapna Thakur
NVBDCP was launched in 2003-2004 . Vector-Borne Disease: Disease that results from an infection transmitted to humans and other animals by blood-feeding arthropods, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas. Examples of vector-borne diseases include Dengue fever, West Nile Virus, Lyme disease, and malaria.
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journey
Carbohydrate 2
1. Carbohydrate 2
Md. Saiful Islam
BPharm, MPharm (PCP)
North South University
Join Facebook : Pharmacy Universe
2. Glucose can enter into cells:
• a) by facilitative diffusion: About ten glucose transporter (GLUT)
proteins are involves in this pathway but 4 are predominant.
• GLUT 1 – blood-brain barrier, erythrocytes (RBC) and human
pancreatic β-cells
• GLUT 2 – liver, mice β-cells in pancreas (fructose and galactose
also)
• GLUT 3 – neurons
• GLUT 4 – skeletal muscles, heart muscle, adipose tissue
GLUT-4 transporters are insulin sensitive, and are found in
muscle and adipose tissue. As muscle is a principle storage site
for glucose and adipose tissue for triglyceride (glucose can be
converted for storage), GLUT4 is important in post-prandial
uptake of excess glucose from the bloodstream.
3. small intestine, kidneys
Glucose and galactose use a sodium-
glucose symport system where sodium-
dependent glucose transporter (SGLT1)
protein involves, while fructose uses
the glut5
• b) by cotransport with Na+ ion (SGLT-1 and 2)
4. Metabolism of glucose or other hexose molecules
Catabolism: Breakdown of glucose molecules to produce
energy or other products
Anabolism: To synthesis biomolecules
Catabolism of Glucose
Glycolysis
TCA Cycle / Creb Cycle
Electron transport Chain
5. Glucose occupies a central position in the metabolism of plants,
animals, and many microorganisms.
It is relatively rich in potential energy, and thus a good fuel; the
complete oxidation of glucose to carbon dioxide and water proceeds
with a standard free-energy change of 2,840 kJ/mol.
Cell can deposit large quantities of hexose units as starch or
glycogen. When energy demands increase, glucose can be released
from these intracellular storage polymers and used to produce ATP
either aerobically or anaerobically.
Glucose is not only an excellent fuel, it is also a remarkably versatile
precursor, capable of supplying a huge array of metabolic
intermediates for biosynthetic reactions. A bacterium such as
Escherichia coli can utilize carbon skeletons from glucose for amino
acids, nucleotides, coenzyme, fatty acids, or other metabolic
intermediates which needs for growth.
6. Glycolysis:
Glycolysis is the process by which glucose molecule, which has six
carbon atoms, is enzymatically degraded in a sequence of 10 enzyme-
catalysed reactions to yield two molecules of pyruvate, which has
three carbon atoms. During this process much of the free energy
released from glucose is conserved in the form of ATP. It is a
universal biochemical reaction that occurs in every living unicellular
or multicellular organism.
The glycolytic process is a small part of the cellular respiration cycle
and overall body metabolism for the generation of ATP (Adenosine
Triphosphate) which is the energy currency of the body.
The process of glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of cells and is
controlled by various enzymes. All the enzymes of glycolysis has been
isolated in pure form from different species and studied in detail.
7. There are two phases in Glyolysis. The
first five steps constitute the
preparatory phase where glucose is
enzymatically phosphorylated by ATP,
first at 6th carbon atom and later at
1st carbon, to yield fructose 1,6
bisphosphate which is then cleaved in
half to yield finally two molecules of
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate.
Other hexoses like D-fructose, D-
galactose and D-mannose enters in the
preparatory phase of glycolysis
following their phosphorylation.
8. The second phase of glycolysis, in
which the energy released when
two molecules of glyceraldehyde-
3-phosphate are converted into
two molecules of pyruvate. The
released energy is conserved by
the phosphorylation of four
molecules of ADP to ATP. Net
yield 2 molecules of ATP per
molecule of glucose since 2
molecules of ATP were invested
in the first phase.
9. In glycolysis three different types of chemical
transformation takes place:
1) The degradation of carbon skeleton of glucose to yield
pyruvate —the pathway of carbon atoms
2) Phosphorylation of ADP to ATP by high energy phosphate
compounds formed during glycolysis ---- the pathway of
phosphate groups
3) The transfer of a hydride ion to NAD, forming NADH.
10. Importance of Phosphate group:
Each of the nine metabolic intermediates between glucose and
pyruvate is a phosphorylated compound, the phosphate group
serves three functions:
1) PO4 groups are completely ionized at pH 7 which makes the
intermediates of glycolysis a net negative charge and helps not
to escape from the cell. Glucose can enter cells and pyruvate and
lactate can leave only.
2) PO4 groups are essential components in the enzymatic
conservation of metabolic energy since they are ultimately
transferred to ADP to yield ATP.
3) The PO4 groups serve as recognition or binding groups required
for the proper fit of the glycolytic intermediates to the active
sites of their corresponding enzymes.
11. Reaction 1: Phosphorylation of glucose to glucose-6 phosphate
• This reaction requires energy and so it is coupled to the
hydrolysis of ATP to ADP and Pi.
• Enzyme: hexokinase, it has a low Km for glucose; thus, once
glucose enters the cell, it gets phosphorylated. Not only glucose
but other hexoses like D-fructose and D-mannose are also
phosphorylated by this enzyme. Mg2+ is essential because the true
substrate is MgATP2-.
• This step is irreversible. So the glucose gets trapped inside the
cell. (Glucose transporters transport only free glucose, not
phosphorylated glucose)
Hexokinase
12. Regulation of Hexokinase
Hexokinase catalyzed phosphorylation of glucose is the first
regulatory step of glycolysis
• This enzyme is inhibited only by excess glucose-6-phosphate. If Gl-
6-P accumulates in the cell above its normal concentration, there is a
feedback inhibition of hexokinase.
• Gl-6-P is required for other pathways including the pentose
phosphate shunt and glycogen synthesis. So hexokinase step is not
inhibited unless Gl-6-P accumulates.
• liver, the site of glycogen synthesis, and in pancreas, has another
form of hexokinase called glucokinase which differs from hexokinase:
a) Not inhibited by Gl-6-P, but inhibited by Fru-6-P
b) It has much higher Km for glucose (10mM) than hexokinase.
Glucokinase comes into play on the excess blood glucose to convert it
into Gl-6-P for storage as liver glycogen, c) in -cells it acts as
glucose sensor and regulates insulin secretion.
14. Reaction 2: Isomerization of glucose-6-phosphate to
fructose 6-phosphate
The aldose sugar is converted into the keto isoform.
Enzyme: Phosphoglucoisomerase
This is a reversible reaction. The fructose-6-phosphate is quickly
consumed and the forward reaction is favored.
15. Reaction 3: is another regulatory step, Phosphorylation of the
hydroxyl group on C1 forming fructose-1,6- bisphosphate.
Enzyme: Phosphofructokinase-1 (Second Regulatory enzyme). This
allosteric enzyme regulates the rate of glycolysis.
Reaction is coupled to the hydrolysis of ATP to ADP.
This is the second irreversible reaction of the glycolytic pathway.
16. Regulation of Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1)
The phosphofructokinase step is rate-limiting step of glycolysis
(major regulatory enzyme in muscle glycolysis).
• Higher levels of AMP or ADP, fructose 1,6-diphosphate and
insulin are activators of this enzyme.
• It is inhibited when the cell has ample ATP, citrate or fatty
acids.
• Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate is the most potent activator of
PFK-1 even at high ATP level,
17. Reaction 4:
Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate is split into two 3-carbon
molecules, one aldehyde and one ketone:
dihyroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate (GAP).
The enzyme is aldolase
18. Reaction 5:
DHAP and G-3-P are isomers of each other and can readily inter-
converted by the action of the enzyme triose-phosphate
isomerase, only G-3-P can directly enters into glycolytic pathway.
19. • G-3-P is a substrate for the next step in glycolysis so all of
the DHAP is eventually depleted. So, 2 molecules of G-3-P are
formed from each molecule of glucose. Up to this step, 2
molecules of ATP were required for each molecule of glucose
being oxidized.
• The remaining steps release enough energy to shift the
balance sheet to the positive side. This part of the glycolytic
pathway is called as the payoff or harvest stage.
• Since there are 2 G-3-P molecules generated from each
glucose, each of the remaining reactions occur twice for each
glucose molecule being oxidized.
20. Reaction 6:
GAP is dehydrogenated by the enzyme glyceraldehyde 3-
phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH). In the process, NAD+ is
reduced to NADH by the hydrogen in the glyceraldehyde
phosphate dehydrogenase.
Oxidation is coupled to the phosphorylation of the C1 carbon.
The product is 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate.
Aldehyde group is dehydrogenated to produce super high energy
phosphate (anhydride phosphate, acyl phosphate), 1,3-
bisphosphoglycerate
-11.8kcal/mol
-3.2kcal/mol
21. Reaction 7:
BPG has a high energy bond, at C1. This high energy bond is
hydrolyzed to a carboxylic acid and the energy released is used to
generate ATP from ADP and the product is 3-phosphoglycerate.
Enzyme: Phosphoglycerate kinase
22. Reaction 8:
In this reaction there is a reversible shift of the phosphate group
within the substrate molecule, ie, from C3 to C2 to form 2-
phosphoglycerate.
Mg2+ is essential for this reaction which involves the transfer of
the phosphate group from C3 to C2
Enzyme: Phosphoglycerate mutase, mutase is often used to
designate enzymes catalyzing intramolecular shifts of functional
groups.
23. Reaction 9:
Dehydration of 2-phosphoglycerate to phosphoenolpyruvate
catalyzed by enolase (a lyase). A water molecule is removed to form
this high-energy phosphate compound which has a double bond
between C2 and C3.
Although the substrate and product contain nearly the same amount
of total energy, loss of water molecule from the substrate causes a
redistribution of energy within the molecule.
Enolase
-14.8
kcal
-4.2 kcal
24. Reaction 10: Third Regulatory Step
High energy bond of phosphoenolpyruvate is hydrolyzed to form
pyruvate with the transfer of high energy phosphate group to
ADP and produces ATP. This irreversible reaction (3rd in
glycolysis) is catalyzed by the enzyme pyruvate kinase.
Pyruvate kinase
25. Regulation of pyruvate kinase
• Pyruvate kinase activity is inhibited under low glucose
conditions
• fructose 1,6 bisphosphate activates pyruvate kinase
• Other positive effectors are insulin, AMP and ADP while
ATP is a negative effector.
• Alanine, an amino acid derived from pyruvate, is a negative
effector . Glucagon and acetyl CoA are also negative
effector
26. Glycolysis: Energy balance sheet
Hexokinase: - 1 ATP
Phosphofructokinase: -1 ATP
GAPDH: +2 NADH
Phsophoglycerate kinase: +2 ATP
Pyruvate kinase: +2 ATP
Net gain for each molecule of glucose: +2 ATP, +2 NADH
27. Entry of other sugars into glycolysis
D-Fructose Fructose 6- P
Fructose is phosphorylated by fructokinase or hexokinase on the 1
or 6 positions.
• Fructose-6-phosphate is an intermediate of glycolysis.
• Fructose-1-phosphate is acted upon by an aldolase-like enzyme
that gives DHAP and glyceraldehyde.
• DHAP is a glycolysis intermediate and glyceraldehyde can be
phosphorylated to glyceraldehyde-3-P.
Fructose 1,6 di-P
Glyceraldehyde 3-P
ATP, hexokinase
Fr 1 P
DHAP Gleceraldehyde
ATP,
Fructokinase
Fruct-P-aldolase
28. Mannose Mannose 6- P
Fructose 6- P
Fruc 1,6- bisphosphate
Glyceraldehyde 3- P
ATP
Hexokinase
Phoshomannose isomerase
Mannose into glycolytic pathway
29. Galactose into glycolytic pathway
D-Galactose
D-galactose 1-P
Galactokinase, ATP
UDP- D galactose
Galactose 1-P uridylyl transferase
UDP- D glucose
Epimerase
D- glucose 1-P
Glucose pyrophosphorylase, PPi
D-glucose 6-P
Phosphoglucomutase
30. Galactosemia:
It is a genetic defect. Affected persons are unable to metabolize
galactose, derived from lactose. So, concentration of galactose
increases in the blood and this condition is known as galactosemia.
Symptoms: cataract formation, growth failure, mental
retardation, or death from liver damage.
Cause: Galactokinase (mild disorder) or galactose 1- P- uridylyl
transferase (severe disorder) deficiency in the cellular level.
Galactose can be accumulates and reduced to galactitol which
initiates cataract formation in the lens and play a role in the
central nervous system damage.