Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle (TCA cycle) are two important metabolic pathways. Glycolysis involves 10 steps that convert glucose to pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP. The TCA cycle further oxidizes pyruvate and acetyl-CoA, producing carbon dioxide, NADH, FADH2, and more ATP. Both pathways occur in the cell's cytoplasm and mitochondria respectively, and are tightly regulated. They are critical for energy production and the synthesis of biomolecules in all living cells.
1. Several hormones work to regulate blood glucose levels, including insulin, glucagon, epinephrine, cortisol, growth hormone, and somatostatin.
2. Insulin is produced by the pancreas and lowers blood glucose by promoting glucose uptake in cells. Glucagon is also produced by the pancreas and raises blood glucose by stimulating glucose production and release from the liver.
3. When blood glucose levels fall, glucagon secretion increases and when levels rise, insulin secretion increases in order to maintain homeostasis. Epinephrine, cortisol, growth hormone, and ACTH also work to raise blood glucose levels through different mechanisms.
Disorders of lipid metabolism | Hypercholesterolemia | Atherosclerosis | Fatt...kiransharma204
This ppt contains details on Disorders of lipid metabolism, Hypercholesterolemia, Atherosclerosis, Fatty liver & Obesity.
Book referred: https://www.amazon.in/Biochemistry-2019-Satyanarayana-Satyanarayana-Author/dp/B07WGHCTKZ/ref=sr_1_1?dchild=1&qid=1591592368&refinements=p_27%3AU+Satyanarayana&s=books&sr=1-1
Gluconeogenesis is the process by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate precursors in the liver and kidneys. The major precursors include lactate, pyruvate, and glucogenic amino acids. This process is important for maintaining blood glucose levels during periods of fasting when glycogen stores have been depleted. Gluconeogenesis closely resembles glycolysis but bypasses its three irreversible steps through alternate enzymes. These include pyruvate carboxylase, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, and fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase. Gluconeogenesis is an energetically costly process that requires 6 molecules of ATP and 2 molecules of GTP.
The document provides instructions for experiments to qualitatively analyze unknown samples of carbohydrates. It includes the theory, procedures, observations, and conclusions for tests to identify monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Students are asked to perform a series of chemical tests on provided carbohydrate samples and unknowns to determine their identities based on color changes and precipitate formations.
The HMP shunt, also known as the pentose phosphate pathway or phosphogluconate pathway, is an alternative pathway to glycolysis and the TCA cycle for glucose oxidation. It is more anabolic in nature and concerned with biosynthesis of NADPH and pentoses. The pathway occurs in the cytosol of tissues involved in biosynthesis like the liver, adipose tissue, and erythrocytes. It is significant in generating NADPH and pentoses like ribose-5-phosphate. NADPH is important for biosynthesis of fatty acids, steroids, and antioxidant defense while pentoses are precursors for nucleic acid synthesis. Regulation involves inhibition of the first step by NADPH. Genetic deficiencies can
The document discusses the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation. It describes how electrons from nutrients are transferred through enzyme complexes in the mitochondrial membrane to generate a proton gradient. This gradient is then used by ATP synthase to phosphorylate ADP into ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. Inhibitors of the electron transport chain like cyanide and antimycin A prevent this process, while uncouplers allow electron transport without phosphorylation.
This document provides information about glycolysis, including:
1) Glycolysis involves the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate, producing 2 ATP and 2 NADH. There are 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions in two stages.
2) Key regulatory enzymes include hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase which control the flux of glycolysis.
3) Under anaerobic conditions, NADH is regenerated through lactic acid or ethanol fermentation to allow glycolysis to continue.
1. Several hormones work to regulate blood glucose levels, including insulin, glucagon, epinephrine, cortisol, growth hormone, and somatostatin.
2. Insulin is produced by the pancreas and lowers blood glucose by promoting glucose uptake in cells. Glucagon is also produced by the pancreas and raises blood glucose by stimulating glucose production and release from the liver.
3. When blood glucose levels fall, glucagon secretion increases and when levels rise, insulin secretion increases in order to maintain homeostasis. Epinephrine, cortisol, growth hormone, and ACTH also work to raise blood glucose levels through different mechanisms.
Disorders of lipid metabolism | Hypercholesterolemia | Atherosclerosis | Fatt...kiransharma204
This ppt contains details on Disorders of lipid metabolism, Hypercholesterolemia, Atherosclerosis, Fatty liver & Obesity.
Book referred: https://www.amazon.in/Biochemistry-2019-Satyanarayana-Satyanarayana-Author/dp/B07WGHCTKZ/ref=sr_1_1?dchild=1&qid=1591592368&refinements=p_27%3AU+Satyanarayana&s=books&sr=1-1
Gluconeogenesis is the process by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate precursors in the liver and kidneys. The major precursors include lactate, pyruvate, and glucogenic amino acids. This process is important for maintaining blood glucose levels during periods of fasting when glycogen stores have been depleted. Gluconeogenesis closely resembles glycolysis but bypasses its three irreversible steps through alternate enzymes. These include pyruvate carboxylase, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, and fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase. Gluconeogenesis is an energetically costly process that requires 6 molecules of ATP and 2 molecules of GTP.
The document provides instructions for experiments to qualitatively analyze unknown samples of carbohydrates. It includes the theory, procedures, observations, and conclusions for tests to identify monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Students are asked to perform a series of chemical tests on provided carbohydrate samples and unknowns to determine their identities based on color changes and precipitate formations.
The HMP shunt, also known as the pentose phosphate pathway or phosphogluconate pathway, is an alternative pathway to glycolysis and the TCA cycle for glucose oxidation. It is more anabolic in nature and concerned with biosynthesis of NADPH and pentoses. The pathway occurs in the cytosol of tissues involved in biosynthesis like the liver, adipose tissue, and erythrocytes. It is significant in generating NADPH and pentoses like ribose-5-phosphate. NADPH is important for biosynthesis of fatty acids, steroids, and antioxidant defense while pentoses are precursors for nucleic acid synthesis. Regulation involves inhibition of the first step by NADPH. Genetic deficiencies can
The document discusses the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation. It describes how electrons from nutrients are transferred through enzyme complexes in the mitochondrial membrane to generate a proton gradient. This gradient is then used by ATP synthase to phosphorylate ADP into ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. Inhibitors of the electron transport chain like cyanide and antimycin A prevent this process, while uncouplers allow electron transport without phosphorylation.
This document provides information about glycolysis, including:
1) Glycolysis involves the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate, producing 2 ATP and 2 NADH. There are 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions in two stages.
2) Key regulatory enzymes include hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase which control the flux of glycolysis.
3) Under anaerobic conditions, NADH is regenerated through lactic acid or ethanol fermentation to allow glycolysis to continue.
Carbohydrate metabolism minor pathwaysRamesh Gupta
This document summarizes several minor carbohydrate metabolic pathways, including those for uronic acids, galactose, fructose, and amino sugars. The uronic acid pathway synthesizes glucuronic acid from glucose via UDP-glucuronic acid. Fructose is metabolized mainly in the liver by fructokinase and aldolase B. Galactose is converted to glucose in the liver. Amino sugars are formed from glucosamine-6-phosphate, which is derived from fructose-6-phosphate and glutamine.
Glycolysis and gluconeogenesis are reciprocally regulated pathways that break down and synthesize glucose, respectively. Key enzymes in each pathway are regulated by allosteric effectors and hormones to ensure the pathways do not operate simultaneously. Insulin promotes glycolysis by activating phosphofructokinase and pyruvate kinase, while glucagon stimulates gluconeogenesis by inducing phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase. Substrate cycles like the Cori cycle couple the pathways and allow for signal amplification between tissues like muscle and liver.
Ketogenesis and ketolysis ---Sir Khalid (Biochem)Soft-Learners
Ketogenesis is the formation of ketone bodies in the liver mitochondria when fatty acid breakdown from beta-oxidation exceeds carbohydrate breakdown, such as during starvation or uncontrolled diabetes. This is because acetyl-CoA production overloads the citric acid cycle. Acetyl-CoA is converted to ketone bodies like acetoacetate, acetone, and 3-hydroxybutyrate, which travel through the bloodstream and are used by muscles and brain as fuel, providing an easy transport of fatty acid energy when glucose is limited.
carbohydrate metabolism, Glycolysis, metabolic process of carbohydrates, EMP ...RajkumarKumawat11
carbohydrate metabolism, Glycolysis, metabolic process of carbohydrates, EMP pathway, Embden- Meyerof-Paranas pathway, cabohydrate metabolic process for study, A presentation on cabohydrate metabolic process i.e. Glycolysis
This document discusses intermediary carbohydrate metabolism, specifically glycolysis. It begins with an introduction to glycolysis, noting that it is the degradation of glucose into pyruvate through a series of 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions. These reactions can occur aerobically, producing pyruvate, or anaerobically, producing lactate. The document then delves into the specific reactions, enzymes, and intermediates involved in both the preparatory and payoff phases of glycolysis. It also discusses the importance of 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate in red blood cells for regulating oxygen release from hemoglobin.
Glycogen is the storage form of carbohydrates in the human body, primarily in the liver and muscle. The liver stores glycogen to provide glucose to maintain blood sugar levels during periods of starvation. Muscle stores glycogen to act as a fuel reserve for muscle contraction, becoming depleted during prolonged exercise.
The HMP shunt, also known as the pentose phosphate pathway or phospho-gluconate pathway, is an alternative pathway to glycolysis and the TCA cycle for oxidizing glucose. It occurs in two phases - oxidative and non-oxidative - and generates NADPH and pentoses while being more acidic than other pathways. The HMP shunt is important as it produces reducing power in the form of NADPH for biosynthesis and protects cells from oxidative stress.
Lipid metabolism involves the breakdown and synthesis of fats. Ingested triglycerides are broken down into fatty acids and monoglycerides in the intestine by pancreatic lipases. They are then absorbed and transported by chylomicrons. In cells, fatty acids undergo beta-oxidation to produce acetyl-CoA, which enters the Krebs cycle to generate energy. Excess acetyl-CoA can be used for ketogenesis or lipogenesis.
Complete Set of Metabolism of Carbohydrate in that second chapter, glycolysis.
This presentation covers complete glycolysis pathway with step wise animated reactions and it includes clinical aspects also. This presentation is good for MBBS students.
This document provides information on carbohydrate metabolism and various pathways involved including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and pyruvate dehydrogenase complex. It discusses:
- The key roles of glucose and glycogen in carbohydrate metabolism
- The three phases of glycolysis and production of ATP
- Conversion of pyruvate to lactate under anaerobic conditions
- Regulation of key enzymes in glycolysis
- Significance of glycolysis in various tissues and diseases
- The citric acid cycle and its importance in energy production
Cholesterol is converted to bile acids in the liver which aid in digestion. Bile acids are synthesized from cholesterol through a reaction that adds hydroxyl groups. They help emulsify lipids and aid in their absorption. Most bile acids are reabsorbed and recycled in a process called enterohepatic circulation. A small amount of bile acids are lost in feces, which is the main route for eliminating cholesterol from the body. When bile acid or cholesterol levels are too high, gallstones can form. Cholesterol is also a precursor for steroid hormones and vitamin D. High levels of cholesterol in the blood can increase risk of heart disease.
This document provides an overview of lipid metabolism. It discusses β-oxidation of fatty acids, formation and utilization of ketone bodies, de novo fatty acid synthesis, the biological significance of cholesterol and its conversion to bile acids, steroid hormones and vitamin D. It also covers disorders of lipid metabolism like hypercholesterolemia and atherosclerosis. The key points are: β-oxidation breaks down fatty acids in the mitochondria, ketone bodies are energy sources formed from acetyl-CoA, and cholesterol is essential for cell membranes and is a precursor for other steroids.
Pharmaceutical Incompatibility : Mr. P. B. JadhavPRASHANT JADHAV
This document discusses drug incompatibilities, which occur when undesirable changes take place in the properties of a medication when two or more ingredients are mixed together. It classifies incompatibilities into three types - physical, chemical, and therapeutic. Physical incompatibilities involve changes in properties like color, odor, or viscosity due to insolubility or other interactions. Chemical incompatibilities show immediate effects like decomposition or color change from reactions. Therapeutic incompatibilities modify a drug's intended effects, such as from overdose, wrong dosage, or drug interactions that antagonize each other. Examples are provided for each type of incompatibility.
Therapeutic and diagnostic applications of enzymes isozymes and coenzymesShubhrat Maheshwari
This document discusses therapeutic and diagnostic applications of enzymes, isoenzymes, and coenzymes. It provides examples of how enzymes are used therapeutically to aid digestion, act as anti-clotting agents, and treat various conditions. It also discusses how enzymes are used diagnostically to detect levels of substances like glucose, liver enzymes, and more. The document then explains isoenzymes and provides an example of lactate dehydrogenase isoenzymes. Finally, it discusses several important coenzymes like NAD, FAD, biotin, vitamin B12 and their roles in biochemical reactions and maintaining health.
This document provides an overview of disorders of carbohydrate metabolism. It begins with an introduction to carbohydrates and what happens when carbohydrate metabolism is defective. It then discusses several specific disorders including pyruvate kinase deficiency, pyruvate dehydrogenase deficiency, essential pentosuria, glycogen storage diseases, disorders of fructose metabolism like hereditary fructose intolerance, and disorders of galactose metabolism like galactosemia. It also provides brief summaries of type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus.
This document discusses glycogen metabolism pathways. It describes that glycogen metabolism has two pathways: glycogenesis and glycogenolysis. Glycogenesis is the formation of glycogen in the liver and muscles, requiring ATP and UTP. Glycogenolysis is the degradation of stored glycogen in the liver and muscles by glycogen degrading enzymes. Glycogen storage diseases can occur due to deficiencies in the enzymes involved in glycogenesis or glycogenolysis.
1. The document summarizes nucleic acid metabolism and genetic information transfer. It discusses the biosynthesis and catabolism of purine and pyrimidine nucleotides, organization of the mammalian genome, structure and functions of DNA and RNA, DNA replication, transcription, the genetic code, and translation.
2. Key topics covered include the semi-conservative model of DNA replication, the three stages of transcription (initiation, elongation, termination), the genetic code consisting of 64 codons that code for 20 amino acids and 3 stop codons, and an overview of translation or protein synthesis.
3. The summary provides a high-level overview of the major sections and concepts addressed in the original document relating to nucleic acid metabolism and
Lipid storage disorders are inherited metabolic disorders where harmful amounts of lipids accumulate in cells and tissues due to deficiencies or issues with lipid metabolizing enzymes. Over time, excess lipid storage can damage the brain, nerves, liver, spleen, and bone marrow. These disorders can be inherited autosomally recessively or x-linked recessively. Specific disorders discussed include cholelithiasis, obesity, fatty liver, and atherosclerosis.
1. Lipids play major roles in cell structure and energy storage. Triacylglycerols are the main form of stored energy in mammals while phospholipids and cholesterol are components of cell membranes.
2. There are two main types of lipids - simple lipids like fats and oils which are esters of fatty acids and alcohols, and compound lipids which also contain phosphate, nitrogenous bases or other groups.
3. Triglycerides from the diet and from adipose tissue are broken down into fatty acids and glycerol. Fatty acids are transported to tissues via the bloodstream bound to albumin or within lipoproteins, then undergo beta-oxidation in the mitochondria to
This document summarizes key aspects of metabolism integration. It discusses the major macronutrients and their roles in energy production and storage. The major metabolic pathways are described, including their junction points and regulatory enzymes. Specific pathways for glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids are explained. The roles of the liver in metabolic integration and regulation by hormones like insulin and glucagon are highlighted.
This document provides an overview of glycolysis, including its key enzymes, intermediates, and regulation. Glycolysis involves 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions that convert glucose to pyruvate with ATP production. It occurs in two phases: the preparatory phase uses ATP to phosphorylate glucose for cleavage, while the payoff phase generates ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation. The document lists the 10 steps of glycolysis and discusses regulation of this central glucose catabolism pathway.
The document provides an overview of carbohydrate metabolism. It discusses the major pathways involved, including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the hexose monophosphate shunt. Glycolysis converts glucose to pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP. The citric acid cycle further oxidizes pyruvate and acetyl-CoA, generating the majority of the cell's ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. The hexose monophosphate shunt provides an alternative pathway for glucose oxidation and generates NADPH.
Carbohydrate metabolism minor pathwaysRamesh Gupta
This document summarizes several minor carbohydrate metabolic pathways, including those for uronic acids, galactose, fructose, and amino sugars. The uronic acid pathway synthesizes glucuronic acid from glucose via UDP-glucuronic acid. Fructose is metabolized mainly in the liver by fructokinase and aldolase B. Galactose is converted to glucose in the liver. Amino sugars are formed from glucosamine-6-phosphate, which is derived from fructose-6-phosphate and glutamine.
Glycolysis and gluconeogenesis are reciprocally regulated pathways that break down and synthesize glucose, respectively. Key enzymes in each pathway are regulated by allosteric effectors and hormones to ensure the pathways do not operate simultaneously. Insulin promotes glycolysis by activating phosphofructokinase and pyruvate kinase, while glucagon stimulates gluconeogenesis by inducing phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase. Substrate cycles like the Cori cycle couple the pathways and allow for signal amplification between tissues like muscle and liver.
Ketogenesis and ketolysis ---Sir Khalid (Biochem)Soft-Learners
Ketogenesis is the formation of ketone bodies in the liver mitochondria when fatty acid breakdown from beta-oxidation exceeds carbohydrate breakdown, such as during starvation or uncontrolled diabetes. This is because acetyl-CoA production overloads the citric acid cycle. Acetyl-CoA is converted to ketone bodies like acetoacetate, acetone, and 3-hydroxybutyrate, which travel through the bloodstream and are used by muscles and brain as fuel, providing an easy transport of fatty acid energy when glucose is limited.
carbohydrate metabolism, Glycolysis, metabolic process of carbohydrates, EMP ...RajkumarKumawat11
carbohydrate metabolism, Glycolysis, metabolic process of carbohydrates, EMP pathway, Embden- Meyerof-Paranas pathway, cabohydrate metabolic process for study, A presentation on cabohydrate metabolic process i.e. Glycolysis
This document discusses intermediary carbohydrate metabolism, specifically glycolysis. It begins with an introduction to glycolysis, noting that it is the degradation of glucose into pyruvate through a series of 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions. These reactions can occur aerobically, producing pyruvate, or anaerobically, producing lactate. The document then delves into the specific reactions, enzymes, and intermediates involved in both the preparatory and payoff phases of glycolysis. It also discusses the importance of 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate in red blood cells for regulating oxygen release from hemoglobin.
Glycogen is the storage form of carbohydrates in the human body, primarily in the liver and muscle. The liver stores glycogen to provide glucose to maintain blood sugar levels during periods of starvation. Muscle stores glycogen to act as a fuel reserve for muscle contraction, becoming depleted during prolonged exercise.
The HMP shunt, also known as the pentose phosphate pathway or phospho-gluconate pathway, is an alternative pathway to glycolysis and the TCA cycle for oxidizing glucose. It occurs in two phases - oxidative and non-oxidative - and generates NADPH and pentoses while being more acidic than other pathways. The HMP shunt is important as it produces reducing power in the form of NADPH for biosynthesis and protects cells from oxidative stress.
Lipid metabolism involves the breakdown and synthesis of fats. Ingested triglycerides are broken down into fatty acids and monoglycerides in the intestine by pancreatic lipases. They are then absorbed and transported by chylomicrons. In cells, fatty acids undergo beta-oxidation to produce acetyl-CoA, which enters the Krebs cycle to generate energy. Excess acetyl-CoA can be used for ketogenesis or lipogenesis.
Complete Set of Metabolism of Carbohydrate in that second chapter, glycolysis.
This presentation covers complete glycolysis pathway with step wise animated reactions and it includes clinical aspects also. This presentation is good for MBBS students.
This document provides information on carbohydrate metabolism and various pathways involved including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and pyruvate dehydrogenase complex. It discusses:
- The key roles of glucose and glycogen in carbohydrate metabolism
- The three phases of glycolysis and production of ATP
- Conversion of pyruvate to lactate under anaerobic conditions
- Regulation of key enzymes in glycolysis
- Significance of glycolysis in various tissues and diseases
- The citric acid cycle and its importance in energy production
Cholesterol is converted to bile acids in the liver which aid in digestion. Bile acids are synthesized from cholesterol through a reaction that adds hydroxyl groups. They help emulsify lipids and aid in their absorption. Most bile acids are reabsorbed and recycled in a process called enterohepatic circulation. A small amount of bile acids are lost in feces, which is the main route for eliminating cholesterol from the body. When bile acid or cholesterol levels are too high, gallstones can form. Cholesterol is also a precursor for steroid hormones and vitamin D. High levels of cholesterol in the blood can increase risk of heart disease.
This document provides an overview of lipid metabolism. It discusses β-oxidation of fatty acids, formation and utilization of ketone bodies, de novo fatty acid synthesis, the biological significance of cholesterol and its conversion to bile acids, steroid hormones and vitamin D. It also covers disorders of lipid metabolism like hypercholesterolemia and atherosclerosis. The key points are: β-oxidation breaks down fatty acids in the mitochondria, ketone bodies are energy sources formed from acetyl-CoA, and cholesterol is essential for cell membranes and is a precursor for other steroids.
Pharmaceutical Incompatibility : Mr. P. B. JadhavPRASHANT JADHAV
This document discusses drug incompatibilities, which occur when undesirable changes take place in the properties of a medication when two or more ingredients are mixed together. It classifies incompatibilities into three types - physical, chemical, and therapeutic. Physical incompatibilities involve changes in properties like color, odor, or viscosity due to insolubility or other interactions. Chemical incompatibilities show immediate effects like decomposition or color change from reactions. Therapeutic incompatibilities modify a drug's intended effects, such as from overdose, wrong dosage, or drug interactions that antagonize each other. Examples are provided for each type of incompatibility.
Therapeutic and diagnostic applications of enzymes isozymes and coenzymesShubhrat Maheshwari
This document discusses therapeutic and diagnostic applications of enzymes, isoenzymes, and coenzymes. It provides examples of how enzymes are used therapeutically to aid digestion, act as anti-clotting agents, and treat various conditions. It also discusses how enzymes are used diagnostically to detect levels of substances like glucose, liver enzymes, and more. The document then explains isoenzymes and provides an example of lactate dehydrogenase isoenzymes. Finally, it discusses several important coenzymes like NAD, FAD, biotin, vitamin B12 and their roles in biochemical reactions and maintaining health.
This document provides an overview of disorders of carbohydrate metabolism. It begins with an introduction to carbohydrates and what happens when carbohydrate metabolism is defective. It then discusses several specific disorders including pyruvate kinase deficiency, pyruvate dehydrogenase deficiency, essential pentosuria, glycogen storage diseases, disorders of fructose metabolism like hereditary fructose intolerance, and disorders of galactose metabolism like galactosemia. It also provides brief summaries of type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus.
This document discusses glycogen metabolism pathways. It describes that glycogen metabolism has two pathways: glycogenesis and glycogenolysis. Glycogenesis is the formation of glycogen in the liver and muscles, requiring ATP and UTP. Glycogenolysis is the degradation of stored glycogen in the liver and muscles by glycogen degrading enzymes. Glycogen storage diseases can occur due to deficiencies in the enzymes involved in glycogenesis or glycogenolysis.
1. The document summarizes nucleic acid metabolism and genetic information transfer. It discusses the biosynthesis and catabolism of purine and pyrimidine nucleotides, organization of the mammalian genome, structure and functions of DNA and RNA, DNA replication, transcription, the genetic code, and translation.
2. Key topics covered include the semi-conservative model of DNA replication, the three stages of transcription (initiation, elongation, termination), the genetic code consisting of 64 codons that code for 20 amino acids and 3 stop codons, and an overview of translation or protein synthesis.
3. The summary provides a high-level overview of the major sections and concepts addressed in the original document relating to nucleic acid metabolism and
Lipid storage disorders are inherited metabolic disorders where harmful amounts of lipids accumulate in cells and tissues due to deficiencies or issues with lipid metabolizing enzymes. Over time, excess lipid storage can damage the brain, nerves, liver, spleen, and bone marrow. These disorders can be inherited autosomally recessively or x-linked recessively. Specific disorders discussed include cholelithiasis, obesity, fatty liver, and atherosclerosis.
1. Lipids play major roles in cell structure and energy storage. Triacylglycerols are the main form of stored energy in mammals while phospholipids and cholesterol are components of cell membranes.
2. There are two main types of lipids - simple lipids like fats and oils which are esters of fatty acids and alcohols, and compound lipids which also contain phosphate, nitrogenous bases or other groups.
3. Triglycerides from the diet and from adipose tissue are broken down into fatty acids and glycerol. Fatty acids are transported to tissues via the bloodstream bound to albumin or within lipoproteins, then undergo beta-oxidation in the mitochondria to
This document summarizes key aspects of metabolism integration. It discusses the major macronutrients and their roles in energy production and storage. The major metabolic pathways are described, including their junction points and regulatory enzymes. Specific pathways for glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids are explained. The roles of the liver in metabolic integration and regulation by hormones like insulin and glucagon are highlighted.
This document provides an overview of glycolysis, including its key enzymes, intermediates, and regulation. Glycolysis involves 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions that convert glucose to pyruvate with ATP production. It occurs in two phases: the preparatory phase uses ATP to phosphorylate glucose for cleavage, while the payoff phase generates ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation. The document lists the 10 steps of glycolysis and discusses regulation of this central glucose catabolism pathway.
The document provides an overview of carbohydrate metabolism. It discusses the major pathways involved, including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the hexose monophosphate shunt. Glycolysis converts glucose to pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP. The citric acid cycle further oxidizes pyruvate and acetyl-CoA, generating the majority of the cell's ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. The hexose monophosphate shunt provides an alternative pathway for glucose oxidation and generates NADPH.
Glycolysis is a catabolic pathway that breaks down glucose to extract energy. It occurs in 10 steps and involves 2 phases. In the first phase, energy is invested to phosphorylate and cleave glucose. In the second phase, the products are further broken down with a net generation of ATP. Glycolysis converts one glucose into two pyruvate molecules, produces 2 NADH, uses 2 ATP and generates a net of 2 ATP per glucose. This pathway is regulated by controlling the activity of three key enzymes: hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase.
The document provides information about plant respiration and glycolysis. It discusses that respiration is the process by which organic substances like carbohydrates are broken down, releasing carbon dioxide and water. There are two types of respiration - aerobic respiration, which uses oxygen and occurs in plant and animal cells, and anaerobic respiration, which does not use oxygen. Glycolysis is described as the first step of aerobic respiration, where glucose is broken down into two pyruvate molecules with production of ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation. The 10 steps of glycolysis are summarized, including investment of ATP in the preparatory phase and production of ATP in the payoff phase.
This document summarizes cellular respiration and the three main stages: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. Glycolysis involves the breakdown of glucose to pyruvate in the cytoplasm and generates a small amount of ATP. Pyruvate can then enter the mitochondria and be further oxidized through the Krebs cycle or fermented to lactate or ethanol. The overall goal is to extract energy from glucose and use it to produce ATP through the three stages of cellular respiration.
Glycolysis is a 10 step pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH. It occurs in two phases: the preparatory phase requires 2 ATP but produces no ATP, while the payoff phase produces a net of 2 ATP per glucose through substrate-level phosphorylation. Glycolysis is a central and ubiquitous pathway that breaks down glucose as an energy source in both aerobic and anaerobic conditions.
Glycolysis is the first step in the breakdown of glucose to extract energy. It involves 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions that ultimately convert one glucose molecule into two pyruvate molecules, producing a net yield of two ATP molecules, two NADH molecules, and energy. Key events include glucose phosphorylation, isomerization to fructose-6-phosphate, cleavage of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate into two trioses, and conversion of trioses into pyruvate with ATP generation. Glycolysis is regulated by three rate-limiting enzymes and substrate cycles to control flux.
Glycolysis is a catabolic pathway that breaks down glucose to extract energy through the release of ATP. It occurs in 10 steps involving 9 enzymes. The first 5 steps are a preparatory phase requiring 2 ATP but generating intermediates. The last 5 steps generate 4 ATP and 2 NADH from the intermediates, resulting in a net gain of 2 ATP per glucose. Three key regulating enzymes are hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase which control the rate of glycolysis in response to cellular energy levels.
1. The document discusses carbohydrate metabolism, including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle (TCA cycle), gluconeogenesis, glycogenesis, and glycogenolysis.
2. Glycolysis converts glucose to pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH. The TCA cycle further oxidizes pyruvate, producing more ATP, NADH, and FADH2.
3. Gluconeogenesis produces glucose from non-carbohydrate sources. Glycogenesis and glycogenolysis involve the synthesis and breakdown of glycogen for glucose storage and mobilization.
1) Glycolysis is a series of 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions that converts glucose into pyruvate, generating ATP in the process.
2) The reactions are divided into two phases: the preparatory phase requires ATP investment to phosphorylate glucose, and the payoff phase generates a net production of ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation.
3) Overall, glycolysis oxidizes one glucose molecule to produce two pyruvate molecules, along with a net yield of two ATP, two NADH molecules, and two hydrogen ions per glucose molecule degraded.
1) Glycolysis is a series of 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions that converts glucose into pyruvate, generating ATP in the process.
2) The reactions are divided into two phases: the preparatory phase requires ATP investment to phosphorylate glucose, and the payoff phase generates a net production of ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation.
3) Overall, glycolysis oxidizes one glucose molecule to produce two pyruvate molecules, along with a net gain of two ATP per glucose molecule.
1) Glycolysis is a series of 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions that converts glucose into pyruvate, generating ATP in the process.
2) The reactions are divided into two phases: the preparatory phase requires ATP investment to phosphorylate glucose, and the payoff phase generates a net production of ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation.
3) Overall, glycolysis partially oxidizes one glucose molecule to produce two pyruvate molecules, along with a net gain of two ATP per glucose molecule.
glycolysis pathway, energetics and significance.pdfSubhashree960249
Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, generating a small amount of ATP. It occurs in two phases: the preparatory phase requires 2 ATP but yields no ATP, while the payoff phase generates 4 ATP from substrate-level phosphorylation but the net ATP gain is 2 per glucose. Glycolysis is a central pathway of glucose catabolism that occurs in the cytosol of all cells.
Metabolic pathways can be catabolic, involving the breakdown of complexes, or anabolic, involving synthesis. Glycolysis is the catabolic pathway that breaks down glucose into pyruvate, producing a net yield of 2 ATP per glucose molecule. It occurs in two phases: the preparatory phase requires 2 ATP to phosphorylate and cleave glucose, while the payoff phase generates 4 ATP from substrate-level phosphorylation as the intermediates are oxidized to pyruvate. Overall, glycolysis oxidizes glucose to pyruvate, reduces NAD+ to NADH, and generates a small amount of ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation.
Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, generating ATP and NADH. It is catalyzed by 10 cytosolic enzymes in 10 steps. There is a net gain of 2 ATP per glucose molecule. The NADH must be recycled to NAD+ either through aerobic respiration or by converting pyruvate to lactate anaerobically. Glycolysis is regulated at three irreversible steps catalyzed by hexokinase, phosphofructokinase-1, and pyruvate kinase. Other hexoses can also enter this ubiquitous pathway.
Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate and produces a small amount of ATP. It occurs in the cytoplasm of cells and can function aerobically or anaerobically. During aerobic glycolysis, pyruvate is further oxidized to produce more ATP. During anaerobic glycolysis, pyruvate is converted to lactate, producing less ATP. The citric acid cycle is a series of chemical reactions in the mitochondria that completes the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to produce carbon dioxide, water, and ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. It is also known as the Krebs cycle or TCA cycle. It is a key step
This document provides information about glycolysis, including:
- Glycolysis involves the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate with production of ATP and NADH.
- There are 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions in glycolysis organized into two stages - a preparatory stage and an energy-yielding stage.
- Glycolysis generates 2 ATP per glucose during normal aerobic conditions and can generate ATP rapidly under anaerobic conditions through fermentation pathways.
- Key regulatory enzymes in glycolysis include hexokinase, phosphofructokinase-1, and pyruvate kinase. Phosphofructokinase-1 activity is regulated by various allosteric effectors.
Glycolysis is a series of enzymatic reactions that breaks down glucose into pyruvate, generating a small amount of ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation. It occurs in the cytoplasm and consists of two phases: the preparatory phase uses two ATP molecules to phosphorylate and split glucose into two three-carbon glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate molecules, while the payoff phase generates four ATP molecules from the breakdown of the two glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate molecules into two pyruvate molecules, resulting in a net production of two ATP per glucose molecule. Glycolysis also produces two NADH molecules that are used in the electron transport chain to generate additional ATP.
The document discusses Shri Gajanan Electric Work's plans to manufacture and sell electric rickshaws (e-rickshaws) as a more sustainable and eco-friendly form of urban transportation. It addresses issues like pollution and congestion from traditional rickshaws by leveraging new technologies. The company aims to collaborate across the value chain, offer financing options, and generate social and environmental benefits through job creation, reduced emissions, and improved mobility while achieving profitability and scale.
Lipid metabolism involves the breakdown of fats into acetyl-CoA to produce energy. This process is called beta-oxidation and occurs in the mitochondria. Beta-oxidation involves activating fatty acids with CoA in the cytosol, transporting them into the mitochondrial matrix using carnitine shuttle, and undergoing four steps of beta-oxidation to shorten the fatty acid by two carbons each cycle. This produces acetyl-CoA and FADH2/NADH which feed into the electron transport chain to produce ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. Repeated cycles of beta-oxidation fully break down fatty acids like palmitate into acetyl-CoA to generate large amounts of ATP through the citric acid cycle
This document discusses lipid metabolism and disorders of lipid metabolism. It covers the biological significance of cholesterol and its conversion into bile acids, steroid hormones, and vitamin D. Key disorders discussed include hypercholesterolemia, atherosclerosis, fatty liver, and obesity. The document provides details on cholesterol metabolism, including biosynthesis of bile acids from cholesterol in the liver, enterohepatic circulation, and the role of bile acids in digestion. It also discusses cholesterol transport via lipoproteins and the roles of HDL and LCAT in cholesterol elimination from the body. Causes and significance of hypercholesterolemia and its association with atherosclerosis and heart disease are summarized.
1. Amino acid metabolism and the biosynthesis of important biological substances like serotonin, melatonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, and adrenaline are discussed. Metabolic disorders affecting phenylalanine, tyrosine, and heme are also covered.
2. Details are provided on the biosynthesis and metabolism of serotonin (5-HT), melatonin, and catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine). Their physiological roles and synthesis pathways involving specific enzymes are described.
3. The catabolism of heme is summarized, outlining the steps of degradation of hemoglobin into bilirubin, conjugation of bilirubin in the liver, transportation and excretion
Amino acid metabolism involves several key reactions: transamination, deamination, and the urea cycle. Transamination involves transferring amino groups between amino acids and keto acids with pyridoxal phosphate as a cofactor. Deamination removes amino groups via oxidative or non-oxidative pathways, producing ammonia. The liver's urea cycle incorporates ammonia into urea for excretion to detoxify high levels. Disorders can occur if urea cycle enzymes are deficient, causing hyperammonemia. Blood urea levels provide clinical information about liver and kidney function.
1. Biological oxidation involves the transfer of electrons between electron donors and electron acceptors. This transfer is facilitated by enzymes called oxidoreductases.
2. The electron transport chain is a series of complexes embedded in the mitochondrial inner membrane that transfers electrons from electron carriers like NADH and FADH2 through a series of redox reactions utilizing carriers like ubiquinone and cytochromes.
3. As electrons are transferred through the complexes of the electron transport chain, protons are pumped from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space, creating an electrochemical gradient that drives the synthesis of ATP by ATP synthase.
The document discusses carbohydrate metabolism, specifically glycolysis and the citric acid cycle (TCA cycle).
It provides an overview of glycolysis, including its two phases and 10 steps that convert glucose to pyruvate, producing a net of two ATP per glucose molecule. The TCA cycle is summarized as a series of 10 reactions that fully oxidize acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, producing carbon dioxide, water, and high-energy electron carriers to fuel oxidative phosphorylation for ATP production. Key regulatory mechanisms and energetics are highlighted for both pathways.
The document discusses key concepts in bioenergetics including:
1) Bioenergetics concerns the energy involved in making and breaking chemical bonds in molecules, which is fundamental to biological processes like growth that depend on energy transformations.
2) The first law of thermodynamics states that energy is conserved, while the second law states that entropy increases, reducing the available free energy.
3) Free energy (G) expresses the energy available to do work and depends on enthalpy (H) and entropy (S) changes. Exergonic reactions release free energy while endergonic reactions absorb it.
This document provides information on biomolecules. It discusses the 5 main categories of macromolecules - carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids. It then goes on to describe each category in more detail, including their monomers, structure, functions. For carbohydrates, it covers monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides like starch, glycogen, cellulose. For proteins, it discusses amino acids, protein structure levels from primary to quaternary. For lipids, it distinguishes simple lipids like fats and waxes from complex lipids.
The shikimic acid pathway is a seven step metabolic route used by plants, bacteria, fungi, and parasites to synthesize the aromatic amino acids phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan from carbohydrates. This pathway converts phosphoenolpyruvate and erythrose-4-phosphate into chorismate, which is then converted into the three aromatic amino acids. Shikimic acid is an intermediate compound in this pathway and is used to produce various secondary metabolites in plants like phenylpropanoids, flavonoids, tannins, and lignin. It is also used commercially in the production of the influenza drug Tamiflu and as the target for the herbicide glyph
This document summarizes amino acid pathways. It discusses that plants and bacteria can synthesize all 20 standard amino acids, while humans can synthesize 11 of the 20. The 9 amino acids humans cannot synthesize are called essential amino acids. The pathways for synthesizing non-essential amino acids are relatively simple, using intermediates from glycolysis or the citric acid cycle. Essential amino acid pathways are more complex. Regulation of amino acid synthesis occurs through allosteric inhibition and coordinated regulation of pathways. Genetic diseases can result from errors in amino acid metabolism.
Radioactive isotopes in the investigation of biogenetic studiesDipali Kulkarni
Radioactive isotopes have many useful applications in medicine and research. In medicine, cobalt-60 is used as a radiation source to treat cancer. Radioactive isotopes are also used as tracers in diagnostic tests and to study metabolic processes. Tracer techniques involve using radioactive or stable isotopes as markers incorporated into precursor compounds to study biosynthetic pathways in plants. Different isotopes are used depending on the application, and their detection methods include mass spectroscopy and NMR spectroscopy.
Biosynthesis is the process by which living organisms form complex organic compounds from simple precursors like sugars, amino acids, and fatty acids. These complex compounds that are directly involved in growth and development are called primary metabolites, while secondary metabolites are not directly involved in these processes but play important ecological roles. Photosynthesis is an important biosynthetic pathway that converts sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water into glucose, a primary metabolite that provides energy to drive cellular processes in plants.
This document discusses various topical anti-infective agents including their categories, mechanisms of action, and properties. It focuses on hydrogen peroxide, potassium permanganate, boric acid, and iodine. It provides details on their preparation, chemical and physical properties, assays, and common uses as antiseptics, disinfectants, and anti-infectives. The document examines how these agents exert antimicrobial activity through oxidation, halogenation, or protein precipitation and their role in sterilization and reducing hospital-acquired infections.
This document discusses various antacids, including their compositions, mechanisms of action, preparations, and analysis methods. It covers common antacid combinations containing aluminum hydroxide gel, magnesium hydroxide, magnesium trisilicate, and sodium bicarbonate. Individual antacids like milk of magnesia and aluminum hydroxide gel are also described, outlining their chemical properties, uses as antacids, and methods for quantitative analysis. Preparation processes are provided for sodium bicarbonate and analysis methods involve titrimetric techniques.
This document discusses various gastrointestinal agents used to treat gastrointestinal disorders, including acidifiers, antacids, adsorbents, and cathartics. It provides details on specific agents such as ammonium chloride, dilute hydrochloric acid, and aluminum hydroxide gel. It explains that antacids are weak bases that neutralize stomach acid and relieve pain by raising the gastric pH to between 4-7 without causing systemic alkalosis. The document also outlines the ideal characteristics of antacids and categorizes them as either systemic/absorbable or non-systemic.
Mrs. Dipali M.K. Kulkarni is an assistant professor at the Yash Institute of Pharmacy in Aurangabad. Astringents are agents that are applied locally and cause protein precipitation on surfaces. They constrict tissues and reduce cell permeability by contracting and wrinkling tissues as well as constricting local blood vessels and inhibiting the movement of plasma proteins through capillaries. The net effects of astringents are that they have anti-inflammatory, hemostatic, and antimicrobial properties by decreasing blood supply, coagulating proteins to decrease bleeding, reducing sweating by shrinking skin pores, and inhibiting microbes through protein precipitation reactions.
This document discusses various types of cathartics/laxatives including bulk forming, stimulant, stool softeners, and osmotic laxatives. It provides examples of specific cathartics that fall into each category such as magnesium sulfate, sodium orthophosphate, kaolin, and bentonite. Details are given on the properties, identification tests, uses and methods of preparation/assay for some of these cathartic agents. Constipation and the role of laxatives in treating it are also briefly covered.
This document discusses emetics and provides details about copper sulfate and sodium potassium tartrate, two emetic compounds. It describes how emetics work by irritating the gastric mucosa or acting directly on the chemoreceptor trigger zone to induce vomiting. Copper sulfate is described as a blue crystalline powder used as a mild expectorant, emetic, and purgative. Sodium potassium tartrate is prepared by boiling a solution of sodium carbonate and potassium bitartarate. The document also provides methods of analysis for copper sulfate.
This document discusses expectorants and their uses in respiratory disorders. It defines expectorants as drugs used orally to stimulate secretions in the respiratory tract. It describes two categories of expectorants - direct acting expectorants that act on bronchial secretory cells, and reflex acting expectorants that act by irritating the gastric mucosa. Examples of expectorants discussed include terpin hydrate, ammonium chloride, potassium iodide, and guaiphenesin. The document also briefly discusses mucolytics, antitussives, antihistamines, and pharyngeal demulcents which are other drug categories for cough. Details are provided about ammonium chloride and potassium iodide
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a simplified look into the mechanisms involved in the regulation of respiration:
Learning objectives:
1. Describe the organisation of respiratory center
2. Describe the nervous control of inspiration and respiratory rhythm
3. Describe the functions of the dorsal and respiratory groups of neurons
4. Describe the influences of the Pneumotaxic and Apneustic centers
5. Explain the role of Hering-Breur inflation reflex in regulation of inspiration
6. Explain the role of central chemoreceptors in regulation of respiration
7. Explain the role of peripheral chemoreceptors in regulation of respiration
8. Explain the regulation of respiration during exercise
9. Integrate the respiratory regulatory mechanisms
10. Describe the Cheyne-Stokes breathing
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 42, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 36, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 13, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
10 Benefits an EPCR Software should Bring to EMS Organizations Traumasoft LLC
The benefits of an ePCR solution should extend to the whole EMS organization, not just certain groups of people or certain departments. It should provide more than just a form for entering and a database for storing information. It should also include a workflow of how information is communicated, used and stored across the entire organization.
Clinic ^%[+27633867063*Abortion Pills For Sale In Tembisa Central19various
Clinic ^%[+27633867063*Abortion Pills For Sale In Tembisa Central Clinic ^%[+27633867063*Abortion Pills For Sale In Tembisa CentralClinic ^%[+27633867063*Abortion Pills For Sale In Tembisa CentralClinic ^%[+27633867063*Abortion Pills For Sale In Tembisa CentralClinic ^%[+27633867063*Abortion Pills For Sale In Tembisa Central
share - Lions, tigers, AI and health misinformation, oh my!.pptxTina Purnat
• Pitfalls and pivots needed to use AI effectively in public health
• Evidence-based strategies to address health misinformation effectively
• Building trust with communities online and offline
• Equipping health professionals to address questions, concerns and health misinformation
• Assessing risk and mitigating harm from adverse health narratives in communities, health workforce and health system
The skin is the largest organ and its health plays a vital role among the other sense organs. The skin concerns like acne breakout, psoriasis, or anything similar along the lines, finding a qualified and experienced dermatologist becomes paramount.
Osteoporosis - Definition , Evaluation and Management .pdfJim Jacob Roy
Osteoporosis is an increasing cause of morbidity among the elderly.
In this document , a brief outline of osteoporosis is given , including the risk factors of osteoporosis fractures , the indications for testing bone mineral density and the management of osteoporosis
Promoting Wellbeing - Applied Social Psychology - Psychology SuperNotesPsychoTech Services
A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
Travel vaccination in Manchester offers comprehensive immunization services for individuals planning international trips. Expert healthcare providers administer vaccines tailored to your destination, ensuring you stay protected against various diseases. Conveniently located clinics and flexible appointment options make it easy to get the necessary shots before your journey. Stay healthy and travel with confidence by getting vaccinated in Manchester. Visit us: www.nxhealthcare.co.uk
DECLARATION OF HELSINKI - History and principlesanaghabharat01
This SlideShare presentation provides a comprehensive overview of the Declaration of Helsinki, a foundational document outlining ethical guidelines for conducting medical research involving human subjects.
Does Over-Masturbation Contribute to Chronic Prostatitis.pptxwalterHu5
In some case, your chronic prostatitis may be related to over-masturbation. Generally, natural medicine Diuretic and Anti-inflammatory Pill can help mee get a cure.
Cell Therapy Expansion and Challenges in Autoimmune DiseaseHealth Advances
There is increasing confidence that cell therapies will soon play a role in the treatment of autoimmune disorders, but the extent of this impact remains to be seen. Early readouts on autologous CAR-Ts in lupus are encouraging, but manufacturing and cost limitations are likely to restrict access to highly refractory patients. Allogeneic CAR-Ts have the potential to broaden access to earlier lines of treatment due to their inherent cost benefits, however they will need to demonstrate comparable or improved efficacy to established modalities.
In addition to infrastructure and capacity constraints, CAR-Ts face a very different risk-benefit dynamic in autoimmune compared to oncology, highlighting the need for tolerable therapies with low adverse event risk. CAR-NK and Treg-based therapies are also being developed in certain autoimmune disorders and may demonstrate favorable safety profiles. Several novel non-cell therapies such as bispecific antibodies, nanobodies, and RNAi drugs, may also offer future alternative competitive solutions with variable value propositions.
Widespread adoption of cell therapies will not only require strong efficacy and safety data, but also adapted pricing and access strategies. At oncology-based price points, CAR-Ts are unlikely to achieve broad market access in autoimmune disorders, with eligible patient populations that are potentially orders of magnitude greater than the number of currently addressable cancer patients. Developers have made strides towards reducing cell therapy COGS while improving manufacturing efficiency, but payors will inevitably restrict access until more sustainable pricing is achieved.
Despite these headwinds, industry leaders and investors remain confident that cell therapies are poised to address significant unmet need in patients suffering from autoimmune disorders. However, the extent of this impact on the treatment landscape remains to be seen, as the industry rapidly approaches an inflection point.
3. METABOLIC
PATHWAYS
CATABOLIC PATHWAYS
Are involved in oxidative
breakdown of larger
complexes.
They are usually
exergonic in nature
ANABOLIC PATHWAYS
Are involved in the
synthesis of
compounds.
They are usually
endergonic in nature.
4. CHARACTERISTICS OF METABOLISM
1. Metabolic pathways are mostly
irreversible
2. Every metabolic pathway has a
committed first step.
3. All metabolic pathways are regulated.
4. Metabolic pathways in eukaryotic cells
occur in specific cellular locations.
5. GLYCOLYSIS
Glycolysis comes from a merger of two Greek words:
Glykys = sweet
Lysis = breakdown/ splitting
It is also known as Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway
or EMP pathway.
6. INTRODUCTION
• GLYCOLYSIS is the sequence of 10 enzyme-catalyzed
reactions that converts glucose into pyruvate with
simultaneous production on of ATP.
• In this oxidative process, 1mol of glucose is partially
oxidised to 2 moles of pyruvate.
• This major pathway of glucose metabolism occurs in
the cytosol of all cell.
• This unique pathway occurs aerobically as well as
anaerobically & doesn’t involve molecular oxygen.
7. • It also includes formation of Lactate from Pyruvate.
• The glycolytic sequence of reactions differ from
species to species only in the mechanism of its
regulation & in the subsequent metabolic fate of
the pyruvate formed.
• In aerobic organisms, glycolysis is the prelude to
Citric acid cycle and ETC.
• Glycolysis is the central pathway for Glucose
catabolism.
8. Glucose
Extracellular
matrix & cell wall
polysachharide.
Glycogen,
Starch,
Sucrose
Pyruvate
Ribose-5-
phosphat
e
Oxidation via
pentose phosphate
pathway
Synthesis of
structural polymers
storage
Oxidation
via glycolysis
Major pathways of
glucose utilization.
9.
10. TWO PHASES OF GLYCOLYSIS
• Glycolysis leads to breakdown of 6-C glucose
into two molecules of 3-C pyruvate with the
enzyme catalyzed reactions being bifurcated
or categorized into 2 phases:
1. Phase 1- preparatory phase
2. Phase 2- payoff phase.
11. PREPARATORY PHASE
• It consists of the 1st 5 steps of glycolysis in which
the glucose is enzymatically phosphorylated by ATP
to yield Fructose-1,6-biphosphate.
• This fructuse-1,6-biphosphate is then split in half to
yield 2 molecules of 3-carbon containing
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate/ dihyroxyacteone
phosphate.
12. • Thus the first phase results in cleavage of the
hexose chain.
• This cleavage requires an investment of 2 ATP
molecules to activate the glucose mole and prepare
it for its cleavage into 3-carbon compound.
13.
14. PAYOFF PHASE
• This phase constitutes the last 5 reactions of
Glycolysis.
• This phase marks the release of ATP molecules
during conversion of Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphtae
to 2 moles of Pyruvate.
• Here 4 moles of ADP are phosphorylated to ATP.
Although 4 moles of ATP are formed, the net result
is only 2 moles of ATP per mole of Glucose oxidized,
since 2 moles of ATP are utilized in Phase 1.
15.
16. STEP 1: PHOSPHORYLATION
• Glucose is phosphorylated by ATP to form sugar
phosphate.
• This is an irreversible reaction & is catalyzed by
hexokinase.
• Thus the reaction can be represented as follows:
Glucose
Glucose-6-phosphate
Hexokinase
ATP
ADP
17. STEP 2: ISOMERIZATION
• It is a reversible rearrangement of chemical structure of
carbonyl oxygen from C1 to C2, forming a Ketose from the
Aldose.
• Thus, isomerization of the aldose Glucose6-phosphate
gives the ketose, Fructose-6-phoshphate.
Glucose-6-phosphate
Phosphoglucoisomerase
Fructose-6-phosphate
18. STEP 3: PHOPHORYLATION
• Here the Fructose-6-phosphate is phosphorylated
by ATP to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate.
• This is an irreversible reaction and is catalyzed by
phosphofructokinase enzyme.
Fructose-6-phosphate
Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate
ATP
ADP
Phosphofructokinase
19. STEP 4: BREAKDOWN
• This six carbon sugar is cleaved to produce two 3-C
molecules: glyceradldehyde-3-phosphate (GAP) &
dihydroxyacetone phosphate(DHAP).
• This reaction is catalyzed by Aldolase.
Glyceraldehyde-3-
phosphate
Dihydroxyacetone
phosphate
Triose phosphate
isomerase
Fructose-1,6-
bisphosphate
Aldolase
20. STEP 5: ISOMERIZATION
• Dihydroxyacetone phosphate is oxidized to form
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate.
• This reaction is catalyzed by triose phosphate
isomerase enzyme.
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
Dihydroxyacetone phosphate
Triose phosphate
isomerase
2
2
21. STEP 6
• 2 molecules of Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate are
oxidized.
• Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase
catalyzes the conversion of Glyceraldehyde3-
phosphate into 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate.
Aldehyde Carboxylic acid
Carboxylic
acid
Ortho-
phosphate
Acyl-
phosphate
product
Joining)
23. STEP 7
• The transfer of high-energy phosphate group that
was generated earlier to ADP, form ATP.
• This phosphorylation i.e. addition of phosphate to
ADP to give ATP is termed as substrate level
phosphorylation as the phosphate donor is the
substrate 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate (1,3-BPG).
• The product of this reaction is 2 molecules of
3-phosphoglycerate.
25. STEP 8
• The remaining phosphate-ester linkage in 3-
phosphoglycerate, is moved from carbon 3 to
carbon 2 ,because of relatively low free energy of
hydrolysis, to form 2-phosphoglycerate(2-PG).
3-phosphoglycerate
2-phosphoglycerate
Phosphoglycerate
mutase
2
2
26. STEP 9: DEHYDRATION OF 2-PG
• This is the second reaction in glycolysis where a
high-energy phosphate compound is formed.
• The 2-phosphoglycerate is dehydrated by the action
of enolase to phosphoenolpyruvate(PEP). This
compound is the phosphate ester of the enol
tautomer of pyruvate.
• This is a reversible reaction.
28. STEP 10: TRANSFER OF PHOSPHATE
FROM PEP to ADP
• This last step is the irreversible transfer of high
energy phosphoryl group from
phosphoenolpuruvate to ADP.
• This reaction is catalyzed by pyruvate kinase.
• This is the 2nd substrate level phosphorylation
reaction in glycolysis which yields ATP.
• This is a non-oxidative phosphorylation reaction.
30. OVERALL BALANCE SHEET OF
GLYCOLYSIS
• Each molecule of glucose gives 2 molecules of
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate. Therefore , the total
input of all 10 reactions can be summarized as:
Glucose + 2ATP+ 2Pi+ 2NAD⁺+ 2H⁺+ 4ADP
2Pyruvate+ 2H⁺+ 4ATP+ 2H₂O+ 2NADH+ 2ADP
On cancelling the common terms from the above
equation, we get the net equation for Glycolysis:
31. Glucose+ 2Pi+ 2ADP+ 2NAD⁺
2Pyruvate+ 2NADH+ 2ATP+ 2H⁺ + 2H₂O
THUS THE SIMULTANEOUS REACTIONS INVOLVED IN
GLYCOLYSIS ARE:
Glucose is oxidized to Pyruvate
NAD⁺ is reduced to NADH
ADP is phosphorylated to ATP
32. ENERGY YIELD IN GLYCOLYSIS:
STEP NO. REACTION CONSUMPTION of ATP GAIN of ATP
1 1 -
3
Glucose glucose-6-phosphate
Fructose-6-phosphate
fructose-1,6-biphosphate
1 -
7 - 1x2=2
10
1,3-diphosphoglycerate
3-phosphoglycerate
Phosphoenolpyruvate pyruvate - 1x2=2
2 4
Net gain of ATP=4-2= 2
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39. TCA Cycle
⚫Also known as Krebs cycle
⚫TCAcycle essentially involves the oxidation of
acetyl CoAto CO2 and H2O.
⚫TCAcycle –the central metabolic pathway
⚫The TCA cycle is the final common oxidative
pathway for carbohydrates, fats, amino acids.
40. ⚫TCA cycle supplies energy & also provides many
intermediates required for the synthesis of amino
acids, glucose, heme etc.
⚫TCAcycle is the most important central pathway
connecting almost all the individual metabolic
pathways.
41. ⚫Definition
⚫Citric acid cycle or TCAcycle or tricarboxylic acid
cycle essentially involves the oxidation of acetyl
CoAto CO2 & H2O.
⚫Location of the TCAcycle
⚫Reactions of occur in mitochondrial matrix, in
close proximity to the ETC.
44. Reactions of TCA cycle
⚫Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate to acetyl
CoAby PDH complex.
⚫This step is connecting link between glycolysis and
TCAcycle.
45. Reactions of TCA Cycle
⚫Step:1 Formation of citrate
⚫Oxaloacetate condenses with acetyl CoA to form
Citrate, catalysed by the enzyme citrate synthase
⚫Inhibited by:
⚫ATP, NADH, Citrate - competitive inhibitor of
oxaloacetate.
46. Steps 2 & 3
Citrate is isomerized to isocitrate
⚫Citrate is isomerized to isocitrate by the enzyme
aconitase
⚫This is achieved in a two stage reaction of
dehydration followed by hydration through the
formation of an intermediate -cis-aconiase
47. Steps 4 & 5
Formation of -ketoglutarate
⚫Isocitrate dehydrogenase (ICDH) catalyses the
conversion of (oxidative decarboxylation) of isocitrate
to oxalosuccinate & then to -ketoglutarate.
⚫The formation of NADH & the liberation of CO2
occure at this stage.
⚫Stimulated (cooperative) by isocitrate, NAD+, Mg2+,
ADP, Ca2+ (links with contraction).
⚫Inhibited by NADH &ATP
48. Step: 6Conversion of -ketoglutarate
to succinyl CoA
⚫Occurs through oxidative decarboxylation,
catalysed by -ketoglutarate dehydrogenase
complex.
⚫-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase is an multienzyme
complex.
⚫At this stage of TCAcycle, second NADH is
produced & the second CO2 is liberated.
49. Step: 7
Formation of succinate
⚫Succinyl CoAis converted to succinate by
succinate thiokinase.
⚫This reaction is coupled with the phosphorylation
of GDPto GTP.
⚫This is a substrate level phosphorylation.
⚫GTPis converted toATPby the enzyme nucleoside
diphosphate kinase.
50. Step: 8
Conversion of succinate to fumarate
⚫Succinate is oxidized by succinate dehydrogenase
to fumarate.
⚫This reaction results in the production of FADH2.
⚫Step: 9 Formation of malate: The enzyme
fumarase catalyses the conversion of fumarate to
malate with the addition of H2O.
51. Step:10
Conversion of malate to
oxaloacetate
⚫Malate is then oxidized to oxaloacetate by malate
dehydrogenase.
⚫The third & final synthesis of NADH occurs at this
stage.
⚫The oxaloacetate is regenerated which can
combine with another molecule of acetyl CoA&
continue the cycle.
52. Regeneration of
oxaloacetate
⚫The TCAcycle basically involves the oxidation of
acetyl CoA to CO2 with the simultaneous
regeneration of oxaloacetate.
⚫There is no net consumption of oxaloacetate or any
other intermediate in the cycle.
53. Significance of TCA
cycle
⚫Complete oxidation of acetyl CoA.
⚫ATPgeneration.
⚫Final common oxidative pathway.
⚫Integration of major metabolic pathways.
⚫Fat is burned on the wick of carbohydrates.
⚫Excess carbohydrates are converted as neutral fat
⚫No net synthesis of carbohydrates from fat.
⚫Carbon skeleton of amino acids finally enter the TCAcycle.
54. Requirement of O2 by TCA
cycle
⚫There is no direct participation of O2 in TCAcycle.
⚫Operates only under aerobic conditions.
⚫This is due to, NAD+ & FAD required for the
operation of the cycle can be regenerated in the
respiratory chain only in presence of O2.
⚫Therefore, citric acid cycle is strictly aerobic.
55. Energetics of TCA
Cycle
⚫Oxidation of 3 NADH by ETC coupled with
oxidative phosphorylation results in the synthesis of
9ATP.
⚫FADH2 leads to the formation of 2ATP.
⚫One substrate level phosphorylation.
⚫Thus, a total of 12ATPare produced from one
acetyl CoA.
57. • HMP pathway or HMP shunt is also called as
pentose phosphate pathway or phosphogluconate
pathway.
• This is an alternative pathway to glycolysis and
TCAcycle for the oxidation of glucose.
• HMPshunt is more anabolic in nature.
58. • It is concerned with the biosynthesis of NADPH &
pentoses.
• About 10% of glucose entering in this
pathway/day.
• The liver & RBC metabolise about 30% of glucose
by this pathway.
59. Location of the pathway
• The enzymes are located in the cytosol.
• The tissues such as liver, adipose tissue, adrenal
gland, erythrocytes, testes & lactating mammary
gland, are highly active in HMPshunt.
• Most of these tissues are involved in biosynthesis of
fatty acids and steroids which are dependent on the
supply of NADPH.
60. HMP shunt-unique multifunctional
pathway
• It starts with glucose 6-phosphate.
• NoATPis directly utilized or produced in HMP
shunt
• It is multifunctional pathway, several
interconvertible substances produced, which are
proceed in different directions in the metabolic
reactions
61. Reactions of the pathway
• Reactions of the pathway:
• Divided into Two phases oxidative & non – oxidative.
• Oxidative phase
• Step:1
• Glucose 6- phosphate is oxidised by NADP- dependent
Glucose 6- phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD), 6-
phosphogluconolactone is formed.
• NADPH is formed in this reaction and this is a rate limiting
step.
62. • Step:2
• 6-phosphogluconolactone is hydrolysed by glucono lactone
hydrolase to form 6-phosphogluconate.
• Step : 3
• The next reaction involving the synthesis of NADPH and is
catalysed by 6 – phosphogluconate dehydrogenase to
produce 3 keto 6 – phosphogluconate which then undergoes
decarboxylation to give ribulose 5 – phosphate.
63. Non-Oxidative Phase
• Step: 4
• The ribulose -5-phosphate is then isomerized to
ribose -5-phosphate or epimerised to xylulose -5-
phosphate
• Step: 5 Transketolase reaction
• Transketolase is a thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP)
dependent enzyme.
64. • It transfers two-carbon unit from xylulose 5-
phosphate to ribose 5-phosphate to form a 7-
carbon sugar, sedoheptulose 7-phosphate and
glyceraldehyde 3 – phosphate.
65. • Step: 6 Transaldolase reaction
• Transaldolase brings about the transfer of a 3 –
carbon fragment from sedoheptulose 7-phosphate
to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate to give fructose 6-
phosphate & 4 – carbon erythrose 4 – phosphate.
66. • Step: 7 Second transketolase Reaction
• In another transketolase reaction a 2 – carbon unit
is transferred from xylulose 5 – phosphate to
erythrose 4 – phosphate to form fructose 6 –
phosphate & glyceraldehyde 3 – phosphate.
• Fructose 6 – phosphate & glyceraldehyde 3 –
phosphate are further metabolized by glycolysis &
TCAcycle.
69. Significance of HMP Shunt
• HMPshunt is unique in generating two important products-
pentoses and NADPH
• Importance of pentoses:
In HMPshunt, hexoses are converted into pentoses, the
most important being ribose 5 – phosphate.
• This pentose or its derivatives are useful for the synthesis of
nucleic acids (DNA & RNA)
• Many nucleotides such asATP, NAD+, FAD & CoA
70. Importance of NADPH
• NADPH is required for the bio synthesis of fatty
acids and steroids.
• NADPH is used in the synthesis of certain amino
acids involving the enzyme glutamate
dehydrogenase.
• Free radical Scavenging
• The free radicals (super oxide, hydrogen peroxide)
are continuously produced in all cells.
71. • These will destroy DNA, proteins, fatty acids & all
biomolecules & in turn cells are destroyed.
• The free radicals are inactivated by the enzyme
systems containing SOD, POD & glutathione
reductase.
• Reduced GSH is regenerated with the help of
NADH.
72. • Erythrocyte Membrane intigrity
• NADPH is required by the RBC to keep the
glutathione in the reduced state.
• In turn, reduced glutathione will detoxify the
peroxides & free radicals formed within the RBC.
• NADPH, glutathione & glutathione reductase
together will preserve the intigrity of RBC
membrane.
73. • Prevention of Met-Hemoglobinemia
• NADPH is also required to keep the iron of
hemoglobin in the reduced (ferrous) state & to
prevent the accumulation of met-hemoglobin.
• Met-hemoglobin cannot carry the oxygen.
74. • Detoxification of Drugs
• Most of the drugs and other foreign substances are
detoxified by the liver microsomal P450 enzymes,
with the help of NADPH.
• Lens of Eye:
• Maximum concentration of NADPH is seen in lens
of eye.
• NADPH is required for preserving the
transparency of lens.
75. • Macrophage bactericidal activity:
NADPH is required for the production of reactive
oxygen species (ROS) by macrophases to kill
bacteria.
• Availability of Ribose:
Ribose & Deoxy – ribose are required for DNA&
RNAsynthesis.
76. • Ribose is also necessary for nucleotide co –
enzymes.
• Reversal of non – oxidative phase is present in all
tissues, by which ribose could be made available.
• What aboutATP
ATP is neither utilized nor produced by the HMP
shunt.
• Cells do not use the shunt pathway for energy
production.
77. Regulation of HMP Shunt
⚫The entry of glucose 6-phosphate into the pentose
phosphate pathway is controlled by the cellular
concentration of NADPH
⚫NADPH is a strong inhibitor of glucose 6-phosphate
dehydrogenase (G6PD)
⚫NADPH is used in various pathways, inhibition is
relieved & the enzyme is accelerated to produce
more NADPH
78. ⚫The synthesis of glucose 6-phosphate
dehydrogenase is induced by the increased
insulin/glucagon ratio after a high carbohydrate
meal.
79. Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency (G6PD)
• It is an inherited sex – linked trait.
• It is more severe in RBC.
• Decreased activity of G6PD impairs the
synthesis of NADPH in RBC.
• This results in the accumulation of met
hemoglobin & peroxides in erythrocytes
leading to hemolysis.
80. • The deficiency is manifested only when exposed to
certain drugs or toxins, e.g.intake of antimalarial
drug like primaquine & ingestion of fava
beans(favism) & sulpha drugs also parecipitate the
hemolysis
81. G6PD deficiency & malaria
• G6PD deficiency is associated with resistance to malaria
(caused by plasmodium infection)
• The parasite requires reduced glutathione for its survival,
which will not be available in adequate amounts in
deficiency of G6PD.
• Met – hemoglobinemia
• G6PD deficient persons will show increased Met –
hemoglobin in circulation, even though cyanosis may not
be manifested.
82. References
• Textbook of Biochemistry – U Satyanarayana
• Textbook of Biochemistry – DM Vasudevan