Introduction of biochemistry
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Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are the four major macromolecules that make up living things. Carbohydrates include sugars and starches and are used for energy storage. Lipids are composed of fatty acids and glycerol and function in energy storage, protection, and insulation. Proteins contain amino acids and perform a variety of functions including growth, energy production, and pH buffering. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA contain nucleotides and store and transmit genetic information that directs cellular functions. These macromolecules are formed through dehydration synthesis and broken down through hydrolysis.
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The document provides information about biomolecules called carbohydrates. It discusses the three main groups of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Glucose is introduced as an important monosaccharide that serves as the major energy source for most cells. The structure of glucose and its alpha and beta isomers are described. Other monosaccharides like fructose and galactose are also mentioned. The document further explains polysaccharides like starch, cellulose, and glycogen, including their structures and functions in plants and animals. Tests for detecting carbohydrates like Benedict's test and iodine test are also summarized.
REMEDIAL chapter 2 edited 2024. ppt.pptx
This document discusses biochemical molecules. It begins by explaining that all living organisms require biomolecules like organic and inorganic compounds. The four most common elements in living organisms are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Biomolecules can be grouped as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, water, and minerals. Carbohydrates include monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Lipids function as storage, structure, signaling, and pigments. Proteins are made of amino acids linked by peptide bonds that can fold into complex structures.
Biomolecules
I have prepare this slide thinking that it will help students .I have collected different photos and videos from internet please comment and if you need any slides for a topics . i will prepare the slide .
Biological molecules
This document provides information on biological molecules. It begins by defining biomolecules as molecules involved in living organisms that are typically made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and other elements. The main types of biomolecules discussed are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids and water. Carbohydrates include monosaccharides like glucose and fructose, disaccharides like sucrose, and polysaccharides like starch, cellulose and glycogen. Lipids include fats, waxes, phospholipids, glycolipids and sterols. The properties of water that allow it to act as the universal solvent in living systems are also summarized.
Biochemistry
The document provides an overview of biochemistry concepts including:
1) Atoms are the basic unit of matter and are composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Chemical bonds form molecules by sharing or transferring electrons.
2) Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are the four major macromolecules that make up living things. They are formed by monomers linking through dehydration synthesis and broken down through hydrolysis.
3) Enzymes are protein catalysts that speed up biochemical reactions by lowering their activation energy. Factors like pH, temperature, and substrate/enzyme concentrations influence enzymatic reaction rates.
Structure of organic compounds
Biochemistry is the study of chemical composition and reactions in living matter. It includes inorganic compounds like water and CO2, as well as organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Organic compounds are made of polymers of monomers like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. These macromolecules are essential to life processes in cells and provide structure, energy storage, homeostasis, and genetic information.
The chemical_basis_for_life---organic_compounds
This document discusses the four major types of organic compounds found in living things: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. It describes the structure and functions of each compound. Carbohydrates such as glucose provide energy, while lipids store energy and form cell membranes. Proteins have a variety of functions including maintaining cell shape and catalyzing reactions. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA pass on traits by coding for amino acids and assembling proteins. Carbon is essential to life because it can form the large complex molecules that make up living organisms.
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Students gathered for a session to discuss their studies and plans. Many shared challenges they faced with keeping up with their coursework while balancing other responsibilities. Ideas were exchanged on effective time management strategies and using campus resources to stay on track academically.
Lipid profile
This document provides information about lipid profiles and their normal ranges. It discusses how to collect and process blood specimens for lipid profiles. It then defines the components of a lipid profile including total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, triglycerides, and VLDL cholesterol. For each component, it provides the normal ranges and clinical significance of abnormal levels. It also briefly discusses apolipoprotein B, phospholipids, chylomicrons, and factors that can increase or decrease their levels.
BIOCHEMISTRY OF LIPIDS
Lipids are a group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, and fat-soluble vitamins. They serve important functions like storing energy, signaling, and as structural components of cell membranes. The document defines lipids and discusses their chemistry, classifications, structures, and biological importance. Key points covered include that lipids are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents, and include triglycerides, fatty acids, and other compounds.
ECOSANOIDS
Eicosanoids are oxygenation products of arachidonic acid (AA), a polyunsaturated fatty acid found in animal and plant cell membranes. AA is released from membranes by phospholipase A2 and metabolized via either the cyclooxygenase pathway to form prostaglandins, prostacyclin, and thromboxanes, or the lipoxygenase pathway to form leukotrienes. These eicosanoids are involved in various physiological functions including inflammation, smooth muscle tone, blood coagulation, reproduction, and GI secretion. Clinical applications of prostaglandins include female and male reproductive health, inflammation and immunity, gastrointestinal, respiratory, musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, ocular health, and cancer.
ROS ANTIOXIDENTS
Aerobic organisms continuously produce reactive free radicals through respiration, metabolism and phagocytosis. Approximately 1-2% of oxygen consumed is converted into superoxide radicals by the respiratory chain, one of the main sources of free radicals in cells. While oxygen is necessary for life, its partial reduction can produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) that damage living systems. The body has multiple antioxidant defenses to combat ROS, including superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase and vitamin C, which help convert ROS into less reactive species and protect biomolecules from oxidative damage.
LIPID CHEMISTRY
Lipids are a group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, and fat-soluble vitamins. They serve important functions like energy storage, signaling, and as structural components of cell membranes. The main classes of lipids are neutral fats/triglycerides (consisting of glycerol and fatty acids), phospholipids, and sterols. Fatty acids can be saturated or unsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acids like omega-3 and omega-6 are essential nutrients. Lipids are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents, and are an important energy source in animals and plants.
Carcinogen
This document discusses carcinogens and cancer. It defines cancer as abnormal cell growth that can invade other tissues and spread to other parts of the body. Carcinogens are substances that can cause cancer. Chemical carcinogens include aromatic hydrocarbons, aromatic amines, and chemicals containing epoxide, organohalogen, and nitroso groups. Carcinogens can damage DNA directly or require metabolic activation. Factors that influence cancer development include dose of exposure, lifestyle factors like smoking, and inherited conditions. Engineering controls, personal protective equipment, hygiene practices, and proper waste disposal can reduce exposure to carcinogens.
Infectious diseases
This document discusses the importance of breastfeeding for infant health and development. It reviews several studies that show breastfeeding reduces the risk of morbidity and mortality from various infectious diseases like diarrhea, otitis media, neonatal sepsis, and respiratory infections. However, in many societies false beliefs interfere with breastfeeding and infants are commonly given prelacteal feeds or mixed feeding instead of being exclusively breastfed. The purpose of the study described is to examine the patterns of infectious diseases in non-breastfed infants compared to breastfed infants admitted to the hospital.
Differences of plasma osmolarity
This document describes a study comparing plasma osmolarity in healthy breastfed and non-breastfed infants. The study included breastfed and non-breastfed infants between 1-6 months of age. Blood samples were collected and analyzed for various biomarkers including glucose, BUN, sodium, potassium, total protein, and albumin levels. Plasma osmolarity was then directly estimated and calculated based on biomarker levels. Results showed breastfed infants had significantly lower glucose, BUN, and plasma osmolarity levels compared to non-breastfed infants. The study concluded breastfeeding provides a lower solute load compared to formula feeding, resulting in lower plasma osmolarity in healthy breastfed infants.
Introdction of metabolism
1. Metabolism refers to the chemical processes that take place in living organisms to sustain life. It includes breaking down nutrients into smaller units and building up complex molecules.
2. Glucose, fats, and proteins are broken down through various pathways to ultimately form acetyl CoA, which enters the citric acid cycle to generate energy in the form of ATP. Less oxygen results in lactic acid formation from glucose.
3. The electron transport chain uses oxygen to convert products of the citric acid cycle into large amounts of ATP, the main energy currency of cells. Fatty acids yield more ATP than glucose due to their carbon-hydrogen bonds.
TRINITY COLLEGE ROBOTIC COMPETITION
The Tufts Robotics Club attended the Trinity College Fire Fighting Robot Contest where they won both the team and individual categories of the Olympiad tournament. This marked the club's fourth win since 2014. They competed in both the mechanical robot competition and trivia-based Olympiad. For the robot competition, Tufts engineered a robot that followed the right wall of the maze and used a fire extinguisher to put out a candle, navigating the maze faster than other teams. In the Olympiad, they demonstrated their strong theoretical engineering knowledge, with sophomore Faizan Muhammad winning individually. The success at this competition aims to attract new recruits to the club.
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A glucose tolerance test (GTT) checks how the body metabolizes blood sugar levels over time. There are two main types: an oral GTT where glucose is ingested, and an intravenous GTT where glucose is injected. It is commonly used to screen for prediabetes and diabetes, especially in obese, pregnant, or high-risk individuals. The test involves fasting overnight, then drinking a glucose solution and having blood drawn over 3 hours to analyze the body's insulin response and how quickly glucose is cleared from the blood. Results are interpreted according to WHO criteria, with different glucose level thresholds indicating normal, prediabetes, or diabetes status.
Conference proceedings
This document summarizes a study that compares the performance of two state observers - a sliding mode observer with super-twisting algorithm (STSMO) and a high gain observer (HGO) - for estimating unmeasured states of a quadrotor UAV. The paper designs each observer and then applies a second order sliding mode control technique using the estimated states to control the quadrotor. Simulations show the performance of each observer under the same control scheme and perturbations. The study aims to compare the observers' characteristics for state estimation of the quadrotor system to determine the best observer for real-time applications given system uncertainties and noise.
social media useage
This study examined the usage of social media by students at the FJMU Lahore. A questionnaire was distributed to 415 students to gather data on their social media usage patterns and behaviors. The results found that 95.9% of students used social media daily, with 77% spending 1-2 hours per day on social media. Major purposes of usage were communication (94%) and entertainment (93%), though 46% also used it for studying. Students reported social media could waste time and distract from studies, but could also be useful for sharing medical videos, knowledge and study guidelines. The study concludes social media distracts students and encourages more non-educational activities, so students should utilize it more for academic purposes and limit entertainment usage
DR MUHAMMAD MUSTANSAR
Dr. Muhammad Mustansar has achieved international recognition for his work. He holds a world record and has had his research published in international posters and books. His accomplishments demonstrate expertise in his field at a global level.
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This document provides instructions for several histopathology staining techniques, including:
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It also describes the Periodic Acid Schiff/Alcian Blue dual stain to differentiate acid mucins (blue) from neutral mucins and carbohydrates (magenta). Precise protocols and reagent preparations are provided for accurate histological analysis.
Histopathology
This document provides information on various histopathology staining techniques. It describes the steps for taking paraffin sections to water, dehydrating and clearing sections in xylene, blotting sections dry, and mounting sections. It also details procedures for Ziehl-Neelsen staining for acid-fast bacilli, Gram-Twort staining for bacteria, Periodic acid Schiff staining, Periodic acid Schiff/Alcian blue staining, and the buffered Congo red method for amyloid. Precise reagents and safety notes are included for each technique.
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This document discusses guidelines for drug use during lactation. It begins by outlining principles from the Quran and Hadith regarding breastfeeding. It then discusses anatomy related to lactation and hormonal regulation. Guidelines for chemotherapy during lactation emphasize using drugs with minimal infant exposure and avoiding unnecessary drugs. Several classes of drugs are discussed, identifying those that are generally safe to use during lactation like beta-blockers, thiazides, ACE inhibitors, warfarin, inhaled asthma medications, and corticosteroids. Drugs that should be avoided include phenobarbital, primodone, and clonazepam. The document also covers stimulants and inhibitors of lactation.
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Cellular respiration is the process by which cells break down glucose and other organic molecules to obtain energy in the form of ATP. It occurs in three main stages: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. During glycolysis, glucose is broken down to form pyruvate in the cytoplasm. In the citric acid cycle, pyruvate enters the mitochondria and is further oxidized, producing NADH, FADH2, and ATP. During oxidative phosphorylation, electrons from NADH and FADH2 are passed through an electron transport chain in the mitochondrial inner membrane. Their energy is used to pump protons out of the matrix, establishing a proton gradient. ATP synthase uses this gradient to
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Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
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Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
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1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
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Introduction of biochemistry
- 3. INTRODUCTIONOF BIOCHEMISTRY BY PROF DR MUHAMMAD MUSTANSAR
- 15. CARBOHYDRATES • Living things use carbohydrates as a key source of ENERGY! • Plants use carbohydrates for structure (CELLULOSE) – include sugars and complex carbohydrates (starches) – contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (the hydrogen is in a 2:1 ratio to oxygen)
- 16. Monosaccharides (simple sugars) • all have the formula C6 H12 O6 • all have a single ring structure – (glucose is an example)
- 17. Disaccharides (double sugars) • all have the formula C12 H22 O11 • sucrose (table sugar) is an example
- 18. Polysaccharides • Formed of three or more simple sugar units • Glycogen - animal starch stored in liver & muscles • Cellulose - indigestible in humans - forms cell walls • Starches - used as energy storage
- 19. How are complex carbohydrates formed and broken down?
- 20. Dehydration Synthesis • Combining simple molecules to form a more complex one with the removal of water – ex. monosaccharide + monosaccharide ----> disaccharide + water – (C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 ----> C12H22O11 + H2O • Polysaccharides are formed from repeated dehydration syntheses of water – They are the stored extra sugars known as starch
- 22. Hydrolysis • Addition of WATER to a compound to SPLIT it into smaller subunits – (also called chemical digestion) – ex. disaccharide + H2O ---> monosaccharide + monosaccharide C12 H22 O11 + H2 O ---> C6 H12 O6 + C6 H12 O6
- 24. Lipids (Fats) • Fats, oils, waxes, steroids • Chiefly function in energy storage, protection, and insulation • Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen but the H:O is not in a 2:1 ratio • Tend to be large molecules -- an example of a neutral lipid is below
- 25. • Neutral lipids are formed from the union of one glycerol molecule and 3 fatty acids • 3 fatty acids + glycerol ----> neutral fat (lipid) • Fats -- found chiefly in animals • Oils and waxes -- found chiefly in plants • Oils are liquid at room temperature, waxes are solids • Lipids along with proteins are key components of cell membranes
- 26. PROTEINS • contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen • composed of MANY amino acid subunits • It is the arrangement of the amino acid that forms the primary structure of proteins. • The basic amino acid form has a carboxyl group on one end, a methyl group that only has one hydrogen in the middle, and a amino
- 27. AN R GROUP IS ANY GROUP OF ATOMS – THIS CHANGES THE PROPERTIES OF THE PROTEIN!
- 28. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS • There are certain groups of atoms that are frequently attached to the organic molecules we will be studying, and these are called functional groups. • These are things like hydroxyl groups which form alcohols, carbonyl groups which form aldehydes or ketones, carboxyl groups which form carboxylic acids, and amino groups
- 30. Major Protein Functions • • • Growth and repair Energy Buffer -- helps keep body pH constant
- 31. Dipeptide • formed from two amino acid subunits • Formed by the process of Dehydration Synthesis • amino acid + amino acid ----- dipeptide + water
- 32. Hydrolysis of a dipeptide • Breaking down of a dipeptide into amino acids • dipeptide + H2O ---> aminoacid + amino acid
- 33. Polypeptide (protein) • composed of three or more amino acids linked by synthesis reactions • Examples of proteins include insulin, hemoglobin, and enzymes. • ** There are an extremely large number of different proteins. • The bases for variability include differences in the number, kinds and sequences of amino
- 34. NUCLEIC ACIDS • in all cells • composed of NUCLEOTIDES • store & transmit heredity/genetic information • Nucleotides consist of 3 parts: • • • 1. 5-Carbon Sugar 2. Phosphate Group 3. Nitrogenous Base
- 36. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) • contains the genetic code of instructions that direct a cell's behavior through the synthesis of proteins • found in the chromosomes of the nucleus (and a few other organelles)
- 37. RNA (ribonucleic acid) • directs cellular protein synthesis • found in ribosomes & nucleoli
- 38. SUMMARY