This document provides an overview of capnography including:
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2) A description of the normal capnogram waveform and factors that can cause abnormal waveforms related to airway, breathing, and circulation problems.
3) Clinical applications of capnography including confirming endotracheal tube placement, assessing ventilation status, and predicting outcomes of cardiac arrest resuscitation.
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capnography refers to the noninvasive measurement of the partial pressure of carbon dioxide (CO2) in exhaled breath expressed as the CO2 concentration over time. The relationship of CO2 concentration to time is graphically represented by the CO2 waveform, or capnogram . Changes in the shape of the capnogram are diagnostic of disease conditions, while changes in end-tidal CO2 (EtCO2), the maximum CO2 concentration at the end of each tidal breath, can be used to assess disease severity and response to treatment. Capnography is also the most reliable indicator that an endotracheal tube is placed in the trachea after intubation.
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This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
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The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
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• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
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2. Capnography
Objectives:
Describe the mechanics and science of ventilation and respiration.
Describe the basic physiology of perfusion.
Describe the relationship between ventilation and perfusion.
Describe the various methods of EtCO2 measurement including
quantitative and qualitative capnometry and capnography.
Describe the technology of EtCO2 measurement including
mainstream, sidestream and microstream sampling.
Identify the components of a normal capnogram waveform.
Identify abnormal capnogram waveforms as related to various
airway, breathing and circulation problems.
Discuss the various clinical applications of capnography in the
field.
3. Capnography
Take Home Messages:
Capnography is a noninvasive method for
monitoring the level of carbon dioxide in
exhaled breath (EtCO2), to assess a
patient’s ventilatory status. A true
capnogram produces an EtCO2 value as
well as a waveform, or capnogram.
4. Capnography
THE PHYSIOLOGY OF VENTILATION
“Rule # 1 of Life: Air must go in and out”,
Bob Page, NERMT-P
Function of ventilation:
Ventilation is the movement of air.
Designed to eliminate CO2 and take in O2
5. Capnography
Why do normal people breath?
Chemoreceptors in the medulla sense
elevated levels of CO2 or lowered pH,
triggering ventilation. Known as
hypercarbic drive.
Diaphragm contracts and moves downward.
Intercostal muscles spread chest wall out
increasing the volume inside the chest.
Differences in pressure inside the chest and
outside causes air to move into the lungs.
Hypoxic drive (low O2 levels) is secondary drive.
6. Physiology of Ventilation
The Brain Stem
The Central
Chemoreceptor’s (CC) in
the brain stem detect a
change in pH in the CSF
pH ↓ respiration’s ↑
pH ↑ respiration’s ↓
7. Capnography
VOLUME CAPACITIES
Tidal Volume (Vt):
The amount of air moved in one breath
Typically 500 cc in an adult at rest
Anatomical Dead Space (Vd):
Air not available for gas exchange
About 150 cc
Alveolar volume (Va);
Air that is available for gas exchange
About 350 cc (Vt – Vd = Va)
Anything that affects the tidal volume only affects
the alveolar volume.
8. Capnography
Factors affecting the tidal volume
Hyperventilation
Fast breathing (tachypnea) doesn’t necessarily increase
tidal volume
Anxiety, head injuries, diabetic emergencies, PE, AMI, and
others
Hypoventilation
Slow breathing (bradypnea) does not necessarily
decrease tidal volume.
Causes include CNS disorders, narcotic use and others.
Street Wisdom: An increase or decrease in tidal
volume is at the expense or benefit of alveolar air.
9. Capnography
Respiration is the exchange of gases
Alveolar respiration occurs between the
alveolus and RBC in the lungs.
Cellular respiration occurs between the
RBC in the body and the tissues.
10. Capnography
Diffusion
When there is a difference in partial
pressure between the two containers, gas
will move from the area of greater
concentrations to the area of lower
concentration. a.k.a. diffusion
11. Capnography
THE PHYSIOLOGY OF PERFUSION
“Rule # 2 of Life: Blood must go round and
round.” Bob Page, NREMT-P
12. Capnography
Fick principle: Oxygen Transport
In order from adequate cellular perfusion to
occur, the following must be present:
Adequate number of Red Blood Cells (RBC’s)
Hemoglobin on the RBC’s carry the oxygen molecules
Adequate O2
Patient must have adequate O2 coming in. See Rule of Life
#1
RBC’s must be able to offload and take on O2
Some conditions such as carbon monoxide poisoning and
cyanide poisoning affect the RBC’s ability to bind and
release O2 molecules.
Adequate blood pressure to push cells
13. Capnography
PHYSIOLOGIC BALANCE
Pathological Conditions
Normal ventilation, poor perfusion: P.E., Arrest
Abnormal ventilation, good perfusion: obstruction, O.P.D.,
drug OD
Bad ventilation and perfusion: Arrest
Bad exchange area: CHF
More Air Less Blood Equal Air and Blood More Blood Less Air
V > Q V=Q V<Q
14. Capnography
TECHNOLOGY OF CAPNOGRAPHY
The Role of CO2
Oxygen is the gas of life
CO2 is the “Gas of Proof of Life”
-Bob Page, NREMT-P
Produced as a normal by-product of metabolism.
15. Capnography
Why do we make
CO2?
The Magic of the
Krebs's Cycle
19 steps
memorization optional
16. Capnography
Measurement of
EtCO2 (Capnometry)
Qualitative
Color change assay
(CO2 turns the sensor
from purple to yellow)
18. Capnography
Waveform Capnography
Features quantitative value and waveform
Capnography includes Capnometry
Street Wisdom: “End Tidal CO2 reading without a waveform is
like a heart rate without an ECG recording.” Bob Page,
NREMT-P
19. Capnography
Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy:
Most often used
Infrared light is used to expose the sample
IR sensors detect the absorbed light and
calculate a value
Broad spectrum IR beams can be absorbed N20
and High O2 levels
20. Capnography
Side stream sampling
“First generation devices”
Draws large sample into machine from the line
Can be used on intubated and non-intubated
patients with a nasal cannula attachment
21. Capnography
Main Stream sampling
“Second generation devices”
Airway mounted sensors
Generally for intubated patients
22. Capnography
Microstream™ Technology
Position independent adaptors
Moisture, secretion, and contaminant handling in
three ways
Samples taken from center of line, and in 1/20th the
volume
Vapor permeable tubing
Sub micron-multi-surface filters
Expensive parts are protected
Microbeam IR sensor is CO2 specific
Suitable for adult and pediatric environments.
24. Capnography
THE NORMAL
60
CAPNOGRAM III
50
Phase I: Respiratory
Baseline 40 II
Phase II: Expiratory 30 IV
Upstroke 20 I
Phase III: Expiratory 10
Plateau
ETCO2: Peak EtCO2
0
level
Phase IV: Inspiratory
Downstroke
25. Capnography
Systematic Approach to Waveform
Interpretation
Is CO2 present? (waveform present)
Look at the respiratory baseline. Is there rebreathing?
Expiratory Upstroke: Steep, sloping, or prolonged?
Expiratory (alveolar) Plateau: Flat, prolonged, notched, or sloping?
Inspiratory Downstroke: Sleep, sloping, or prolonged?
Read the EtCO2
If ABG is available, compare the EtCO2 with PACO2
If they are within 5mm/hg of each other then the problem is
ventilatory and not perfusion.
EtCO2 can be used in many cases in lieu of ABG’s
26. Capnography
The ABC’s of Waveform Interpretation!
A – Airway: Look for signs of obstructed
airway (steep, upsloping expiratory
plateau)
B – Breathing: Look at EtCO2 reading. Look
for waveforms, and elevated respiratory
baseline.
C – Circulation: Look at trends, long and
short term for increases or decreases in
EtCO2 readings
27. Capnography
NORMAL CAPNOGRAPHY
This is a normal capnogram that has all of the
phases that are easily appreciated. Note the
gradual upslope and alveolar “Plateau”
50
40
30
20
10
0
Time
28. Capnography
ABNORMAL CAPNOGRAPHY
Hyperventilation
This capnogram starts slow and has an EtCO2 reading that is
normal. Notice as the rate gets faster, the waveform gets
narrower and there is a steady decrease in the EtCO2 to below
30mm/hg. Causes of this type of waveform include:
50
40
30
20
10
0
Time
30. Capnography
Hypoventilation
In this capnogram, there is a gradual increase in the EtCO2.
Obstruction is not apparent. Causes of this may include:
Respiratory depression for any reason
Narcotic overdose
CNS dysfunction
Heavy sedation
50
40
30
20
10
0
Time
31. Capnography
Apnea
This capnogram shows a complete loss of waveform
indicating no CO2 present
Dislodged ET Tube
Total obstruction of ET Tube
Respiratory arrest in the non-intubated patient
Equipment malfunction
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EtCO2 mmHg
32. Capnography
Loss of Alveolar Plateau
This capnogram displays an abnormal loss of alveolar
plateau meaning incomplete or obstructed exhalation
Note the “Shark’s fin” pattern. This pattern is found in the
following Bronchoconstriction
Asthma
COPD
50
40
30
20
10
0
Time
33. Capnography
Poor perfusion (cardiac arrest)
The capnogram can indicate perfusion during CPR and
effectiveness of resuscitation efforts
Note the trough in the center of the capnogram During this
time, there was a change in personnel doing CPR. The fatigue
of the first rescuer was demonstrated when the second rescuer
took over compressions.
60
50 Time: 30 minute trend
40
30
20
10
0
EtCO2 mmHg
34. Capnography
This patient was defibrillated successfully with a
return of spontaneous pulse
Notice the dramatic change in the EtCO2 when pulses were
restored
Studies have shown that consistently low readings (less
than 10mm) during resuscitation reflect a poor outcome and
futile resuscitation
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EtCO2 mmHg
35. Capnography
Elevated Baseline
This capnogram demonstrates an elevation to the baseline.
This indicates incomplete inhalation and or exhalation. CO2
does not get completely washed out on inhalation. Possible
causes for this include:
Air trapping (as in asthma or COPD)
CO2 rebreathing (ventilator circuit problem)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EtCO2 mmHg
36. Capnography
Field Clinical Applications for
Capnography
Closed Head Injury
Increased intracranial pressure (ICP) tied to
increased blood flow following injury (swelling)
Hypoxic cells produce CO2 in the brain
CO2 causes vasodilation and more blood fills
the cranium, increasing pressure.
Hyperventilation is no longer recommended
Ventilation should be geared towards
controlling CO2 levels but not overdoing it.
37. Capnography
Obstructive Pulmonary Diseases
Asthma, COPD
Waveform can indicate bronchoconstriction
where wheezes might not have been heard
Monitor the effectiveness of bronchodilator
therapy
38. Capnography
Tube Conformation
Capnography will detect the presence of
CO2 in expired air conforming ETT
placement
No longer acceptable to use only lungs sounds
to confirm
A dislodged tube will be detected immediately
with capnography
Kinking or clotting tubes can also be detected
In cases of ventilator use, capnography
can detect problems in rebreathing.
39. Capnography
Is your legal defense that the tube was
in the right spot!
Whose Tube Is It?
JEMS Magazine March 2006
40. Capnography
Perfusion
Capnography can be set up to trend EtCO2
to detect the presence or absence of
perfusion
Is a proven predictor of those who do not
survive resuscitation
When an ABG is available, can detect
ventilatory or perfusion problems
41. Capnography
CASE # 1
Presentation
Patient is a 65 year old male complaining of crushing
substernal chest pain. He rates the pain as a 10 on a
scale of one to ten. He denies and shortness of breath or
any other complaints. He has a history of cardiac
disease and asthma.
Clinical Situation
V/S: 130/80, Pulse is 100, RR is about 20
SpO2 is 96%, EtCO2 is 40
Cardiac Monitor shows Sinus Tachycardia
42. Capnography
His capnogram is as follows.
Questions:
Is the EtCO2 within normal limits?
Is the waveform normal or abnormal? Why or Why Not?
What can you deduce about the ventilation status?
A
B
C
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EtCO2 mmHg
43. Capnography
Closing Remarks,
Capnography represents another great stride in
the advances in technology and medicine that
have made way into the field. Not since the
cardiac monitor and paramedics manually reading
ECG strips has one device had the ability to
benefit such a wide variety of patients.
For years, Anesthesiologists have used waveform
capnography as their standard for monitoring the
vital functions of patients. Now, the technology
allows a smaller version to be used by
paramedics.
44. Capnography
References
Bob Page’s Riding the Waves
Cardiopulmonary Anatomy and Physiology
2nd edition
Egan’s Fundamentals of Respiratory Care
6th edition
