This document provides an overview of passive and active remote sensing systems. It defines passive sensors as those that detect natural energy emitted or reflected by an object, such as sunlight, while active sensors provide their own energy source, such as radar. Examples of different types of passive sensors are provided, such as radiometers, spectrometers, and sounders, while active sensors mentioned include radar, lidar, and scatterometers. The advantages and disadvantages of each system are discussed, with passive sensors being simpler but providing less detailed data, while active sensors can control illumination but are more complex. Examples of images from both types of sensors are also presented.
A remote sensing system uses a detector to sense the reflected or emitted energy from the earth's surface, perhaps modified by the intervening atmosphere. The sensor can be on a satellite, aircraft, or drone. The sensor turns the energy into a voltage, which an analog to digital converter turns into a single integer value (called the Digital Number, or DN) for the energy. Alternatively a digital detector can store the DN directly. We can then display this value with an appropriate color to build up an image of the region sensed by the system. The DN represents the energy sensed by the sensor in a particular part of the electromagnetic spectrum, emitted or reflected from a particular region. The principles can also be applied to sonar imagery, especially useful in water where sound penetrates readily whereas electromagnetic energy attenuates rapidly.
Definitions,
Remote sensing systems can be active or passive: active systems put out their own source of energy (a large "flash bulb") whereas passive systems use solar energy reflected from the surface or thermal energy emitted by the surface. Active systems can achieve higher resolution.
Satellite resolution considers four things: spatial, spectral, radiometric, and temporal resolution.
Electromagnetic radiation and the atmosphere control many aspects of a remote sensing system.
Satellite orbits determine many characteristics of the imagery, what the satellite sees, and how often it revisits an area.
The signal to noise ratio is important for the design of remote sensing systems.
Satellite band tradeoffs.
Interpreting satellite reflectance patterns and images uses various statistical measures to assess surface properties in the image.
The colors used on the display are gray shading for single bands, and RGB for multi-band composites. We can also perform image merge and sharpening to combine the advantages of both panchromatic (higher spatial resolution) and color imagery (better differentiation of surface materials).
Keys for image analysis
Hyperspectral imagery
Spectral reflectance library--different materials reflect radiation differently
A remote sensing system uses a detector to sense the reflected or emitted energy from the earth's surface, perhaps modified by the intervening atmosphere. The sensor can be on a satellite, aircraft, or drone. The sensor turns the energy into a voltage, which an analog to digital converter turns into a single integer value (called the Digital Number, or DN) for the energy. Alternatively a digital detector can store the DN directly. We can then display this value with an appropriate color to build up an image of the region sensed by the system. The DN represents the energy sensed by the sensor in a particular part of the electromagnetic spectrum, emitted or reflected from a particular region. The principles can also be applied to sonar imagery, especially useful in water where sound penetrates readily whereas electromagnetic energy attenuates rapidly.
Definitions,
Remote sensing systems can be active or passive: active systems put out their own source of energy (a large "flash bulb") whereas passive systems use solar energy reflected from the surface or thermal energy emitted by the surface. Active systems can achieve higher resolution.
Satellite resolution considers four things: spatial, spectral, radiometric, and temporal resolution.
Electromagnetic radiation and the atmosphere control many aspects of a remote sensing system.
Satellite orbits determine many characteristics of the imagery, what the satellite sees, and how often it revisits an area.
The signal to noise ratio is important for the design of remote sensing systems.
Satellite band tradeoffs.
Interpreting satellite reflectance patterns and images uses various statistical measures to assess surface properties in the image.
The colors used on the display are gray shading for single bands, and RGB for multi-band composites. We can also perform image merge and sharpening to combine the advantages of both panchromatic (higher spatial resolution) and color imagery (better differentiation of surface materials).
Keys for image analysis
Hyperspectral imagery
Spectral reflectance library--different materials reflect radiation differently
What is Remote Sensing?
Process of Remote Sensing
Electromagnetic Radiations
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Interaction with Atmosphere
Radiations-Target Interactions
Passive Vs Active Sensing
Types of Platforms
1. Airbrone Platforms
2. Spacebrone Platforms
Platforms are Vital Role in remote sensing data acquisition
Necessary to correct the position the remote sensors that collect data from the objects of interest
What is Remote Sensing?
Process of Remote Sensing
Electromagnetic Radiations
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Interaction with Atmosphere
Radiations-Target Interactions
Passive Vs Active Sensing
Types of Platforms
1. Airbrone Platforms
2. Spacebrone Platforms
Platforms are Vital Role in remote sensing data acquisition
Necessary to correct the position the remote sensors that collect data from the objects of interest
Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon without making physical contact with the object and thus in contrast to in situ observation. In modern usage, the term generally refers to the use of aerial sensor technologies to detect and classify objects on Earth (both on the surface, and in the atmosphere and oceans) by means of propagated signals (e.g. electromagnetic radiation). It may be split into active remote sensing (when a signal is first emitted from aircraft or satellites)[1][2][3] or passive (e.g. sunlight) when information is merely recorded.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Remote sensing implies to the collection of data
about an object from a distance. With the use of LiDAR
remote sensing technology, the three dimensional
distribution of plant canopies and vegetation structural
attributes can be accurately estimated. The measure of
difference in reflectance from leaves of plants, due to the
presence of chlorophyll pigments in different ratios, can be
helpful to locate and characterize the plant remote
location through remote sensing technology and
Geographic Information System (GIS). The present study
highlights the importance of remote sensing technology and
GIS in detection of herbs located distantly.
Engineering Project Management
This report is going to talk about and explain the basics of project
management, the importance of project management, the role of project
manager, the skills a good project manager must have, some key concepts
that almost every project must follow, the steps of the project and how the
project works and what effects it, and some of the reasons that may cause
problems in the process of the way that the project is going or some of the
problems that may actually make the project fail and not just create some
problems that can be solved, and the report also explains a small example
to make understanding the concept of engineering project management
easy.
The report explains the entire process of project management from the first
step before the project starts, and it explains on how to achieve the goal of
the project at the end when the project is finished.
The Effect of Declination on The Tide Pattern in Hydroghraphic SurveyingNzar Braim
The Effect of Declination on The Tide Pattern in Hydroghraphic Surveying.
I was discussed about the tide and what's meaning of tide
and I explained it with simple figure
Contribution Of Real Time Network (NRTK) for improvement of accuracyNzar Braim
Contribution Of Real Time Network (NRTK) for improvement of accuracy in GPS.
RTK GPS has seen incredible mechanical advances in the course of recent years and is currently routinely utilized in a wide assortment of building type applications. RTK GPS gives a centimeter-level situation in a moment or two, permitting laborers to get the exactness. One GPS
collector is put in a control point (named the reference station) with known directions. RTK framework consolidates GPS data and information radio correspondence with cutting edge calculations to figure the exact situation of the tasks, for example, parkway and extension, GIS venture.
Types of Walls (Brick,Concrete Block & Stone Walls)Nzar Braim
Types of Walls (Brick, Concrete
Block & Stone Walls)
The main objective of this project is to assess the contribution of nonstructural masonry walls to the safety of buildings after an unforeseeable
event and the definition of procedures to enhance this contribution
Comparing alternatives in Engineering Economics and ManagementNzar Braim
Comparing alternatives in Engineering Economics and Management
In the real world, the majority of engineering economic analysis problems are
alternative comparisons. In these problems, two or more mutually exclusive
investments compete for limited funds. A variety of methods exists for selecting
the superior alternative from a group of proposals. Each method has its own merits
and applications
Differentiation between primary and secondary LIDAR system of Remote SensingNzar Braim
In this report I will explain the importance of remote sensing in general and explaining
one of the most important system or application which is LIDAR (light detection and
ranging) and I will explain all its types and uses and applications and the components
and advantage of this system and how it works then I will mention the imaging system
with explaining the primary and secondary return imaging in LiDAR
The concept of total Horizontal and Vertical UncertaintyNzar Braim
My aim in this report is showing The Importance and significance the subject
of hydrographic which is important science in our life especially for some
countries that's covered with the water or let's say the large amount of water
so we knew that survey engineer deals with the coordinates measurement,
errors ,accuracies , other sectors so hydrographic surveyor should observing
carefully because it deals with the water as we know water let's say level of
the water is not suitable changes from place to another due to the gravity of
the Earth and all above mentioned it should be considered for the the
movement of the ships the other water vehicles in the water
Thermostone in Constrication or ThermostoneNzar Braim
My aim in this report is showing the specialty of thermostone and about the
type of creation the chemical sectional and preparation then discuss about
the method and advantage of thermostone.s to improve the report we used
the Koya thermostone the rate of construction in the Kurdistan region (KRG)
has increased through the recent decade due to a wide scope of investments
in different projects and especially for residential projects, infrastructure and
others
Developing project objectives and Execution plan in Economy management Nzar Braim
my aim in creating this report is to discuss about developing project objectives and
execution plan ,In every project and work that is done we have to consider a set of
things because each project must have its own goals and objectives.
It has to have its own time and the project has to be successful in all areas And to
further support the report we put an example on the schedule talks about 150m street
in Erbil.
At first we discuss about execution, next discuss about elements, then discuss
developing project objectives, after that the factors that make the project a success.
Erbil Citadel is a fortified settlement on top of an imposing ovoid-shaped tell (a hill created by many generations of people living and rebuilding on the same spot) in the Kurdistan region, Erbil Governorate. A continuous wall of tall 19th-century façades still conveys the visual impression of an impregnable fortress, dominating the city of Erbil. The citadel features a peculiar fan-like pattern dating back to Erbil's late Ottoman phase.
Law of supply and demand in Economy and management.
In economics, the relationship between the quantity of a commodity that producers wish to sell at various prices and the quantity that consumers wish to buy. It is the main model of price determination used in economic theory. The price of a commodity is determined by the interaction of supply and demand in a market. The resulting price is referred to as the equilibrium price and represents an agreement between producers and consumers of the good. In equilibrium, the quantity of a good supplied by producers equals the quantity demanded by consumers.
Role of electromagnetic Radiation in Remote SensingNzar Braim
Role of electromagnetic Radiation in Remote Sensing
It should be clear by now that the electromagnetic waves are originator and
carrier of information in Earth observation. The information content of the products delivered by a given type of sensor is essentially related to the parameters, mainly frequency (or wavelength) and polarization, characterizing the observing system, including the geometry at which data are acquired. Therefore, the specifications of an EO system, which include the type of sensor, the band of operation, the observation angle, etc.
The Hyperbolic Radio System in hydrographic surveying
Hyperbolic navigation systems are systems designed to provide long-distance positioning information. LORAN C system is operating and provides position information for ships and land vehicles, too. Today, there are some modernization programs called Euro fix, eLoran, which aim to increase the positioning accuracy, high reliability, and independence from satellite navigation systems. The theoretical accuracy of these modern systems is compatible with navigation satellite systems' accuracy.
Car Parking Design in Urban Planning
The growing population of India has created many problems one of the
challenging ones being car parking which we confront almost every day.
Besides the problem of space for cars moving on the road, greater is the
the problem of space for a parked vehicle considering that private vehicles
remain parked for most of their time. While residential projects still escape
with designated parking, the real problem lies with commercial spaces many
a time which is overcome by taking extra open spaces to park.
Portland Cement
Portland cement is extensively used in the construction of nuclear waste facilities and as a matrix for shielding and immobilization of radioactive species. It affords both a physical and chemical potential for immobilization. These potentials are quantified and related to specification, fabrication, and performance. However, performance in the long term depends on the cement formulation as well as the geochemistry of the disposal environment and interactions between cement and its near field environment including inactive waste components and other containment materials. Future performance can be estimated using data from natural analogs,
the experience of the performance of historic structures, and by modeling. A comparison of Portland cement with other non-Portland cement is also made.
Segregation in Concrete
The main explanation of this report of Segregation in concrete in terms of
concrete and self-compacting. The aim was to find an analytical relation to
estimating the risk of sedimentation, using the characteristics of the particles
and those of the mortars. The prediction of surface effect segregation (i.e.
transportation of different particle size fractions during heap formation) has
been the subject of a significant level of study.
Explanation of the type of segregation in term size, dry, wet, and water separate
and effect segregation in concrete in term strength and cracks, and
Prevention of Segregation in Concrete.
I brought up an example that supports segregation in concrete which is used
in Kurdistan Region, and explaining the example in term caused segregation
the effect in concrete.
Bar Graph Method in Engineering management Nzar Braim
Bar Graph Method in Engineering management
The main explanation of this report of the Bar Graph Method in terms of
schedule and constriction planning.
The time allowed for Bar graph Schedule performance is usually an
an important consideration for both the project owner and the project contractor.
I've explained the good side of the Bar Graph Method in terms of ( Clarity,
Communication, Motivation, Coordination, Creativity, Time Management
Flexibility, Manageability, Efficiency, Accountability ) and I've talked
about the downside.
I brought up an example that supports the Bar Graph Method which is used in
Kurdistan Region, name of example is (Quantity Estimation and Bar
Graph Schedule for the Project of 150 m Road- Erbil City).
Reconnaissance for Hydrographic Surveying ProjectNzar Braim
Reconnaissance for Hydrographic
Surveying Project
This report talks about how the reconnaissance will be and it is effectively important the place that we survey and observation so the surveyor should prepare himself or herself for the project visiting site and site survey and planning and so on.
Observer visiting the site many times daily to see what is the situation and the condition and booking his or her notes recording them such as is the site ready to start the observation? Or is the site has safety to start? I mean replace safety conditions and also must have collected all this information and choose which instrument this site or this project and many other conditions should be considered after all above that I have mentioned he or she decides to start and beginning Project and surveying or not. This is the idea or this the outline recognizes.
Student information management system project report ii.pdfKamal Acharya
Our project explains about the student management. This project mainly explains the various actions related to student details. This project shows some ease in adding, editing and deleting the student details. It also provides a less time consuming process for viewing, adding, editing and deleting the marks of the students.
CFD Simulation of By-pass Flow in a HRSG module by R&R Consult.pptxR&R Consult
CFD analysis is incredibly effective at solving mysteries and improving the performance of complex systems!
Here's a great example: At a large natural gas-fired power plant, where they use waste heat to generate steam and energy, they were puzzled that their boiler wasn't producing as much steam as expected.
R&R and Tetra Engineering Group Inc. were asked to solve the issue with reduced steam production.
An inspection had shown that a significant amount of hot flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes, where the heat was supposed to be transferred.
R&R Consult conducted a CFD analysis, which revealed that 6.3% of the flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes without transferring heat. The analysis also showed that the flue gas was instead being directed along the sides of the boiler and between the modules that were supposed to capture the heat. This was the cause of the reduced performance.
Based on our results, Tetra Engineering installed covering plates to reduce the bypass flow. This improved the boiler's performance and increased electricity production.
It is always satisfying when we can help solve complex challenges like this. Do your systems also need a check-up or optimization? Give us a call!
Work done in cooperation with James Malloy and David Moelling from Tetra Engineering.
More examples of our work https://www.r-r-consult.dk/en/cases-en/
About
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Technical Specifications
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
Key Features
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system
• Copatiable with IDM8000 CCR
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
Application
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
NO1 Uk best vashikaran specialist in delhi vashikaran baba near me online vas...Amil Baba Dawood bangali
Contact with Dawood Bhai Just call on +92322-6382012 and we'll help you. We'll solve all your problems within 12 to 24 hours and with 101% guarantee and with astrology systematic. If you want to take any personal or professional advice then also you can call us on +92322-6382012 , ONLINE LOVE PROBLEM & Other all types of Daily Life Problem's.Then CALL or WHATSAPP us on +92322-6382012 and Get all these problems solutions here by Amil Baba DAWOOD BANGALI
#vashikaranspecialist #astrologer #palmistry #amliyaat #taweez #manpasandshadi #horoscope #spiritual #lovelife #lovespell #marriagespell#aamilbabainpakistan #amilbabainkarachi #powerfullblackmagicspell #kalajadumantarspecialist #realamilbaba #AmilbabainPakistan #astrologerincanada #astrologerindubai #lovespellsmaster #kalajaduspecialist #lovespellsthatwork #aamilbabainlahore#blackmagicformarriage #aamilbaba #kalajadu #kalailam #taweez #wazifaexpert #jadumantar #vashikaranspecialist #astrologer #palmistry #amliyaat #taweez #manpasandshadi #horoscope #spiritual #lovelife #lovespell #marriagespell#aamilbabainpakistan #amilbabainkarachi #powerfullblackmagicspell #kalajadumantarspecialist #realamilbaba #AmilbabainPakistan #astrologerincanada #astrologerindubai #lovespellsmaster #kalajaduspecialist #lovespellsthatwork #aamilbabainlahore #blackmagicforlove #blackmagicformarriage #aamilbaba #kalajadu #kalailam #taweez #wazifaexpert #jadumantar #vashikaranspecialist #astrologer #palmistry #amliyaat #taweez #manpasandshadi #horoscope #spiritual #lovelife #lovespell #marriagespell#aamilbabainpakistan #amilbabainkarachi #powerfullblackmagicspell #kalajadumantarspecialist #realamilbaba #AmilbabainPakistan #astrologerincanada #astrologerindubai #lovespellsmaster #kalajaduspecialist #lovespellsthatwork #aamilbabainlahore #Amilbabainuk #amilbabainspain #amilbabaindubai #Amilbabainnorway #amilbabainkrachi #amilbabainlahore #amilbabaingujranwalan #amilbabainislamabad
Welcome to WIPAC Monthly the magazine brought to you by the LinkedIn Group Water Industry Process Automation & Control.
In this month's edition, along with this month's industry news to celebrate the 13 years since the group was created we have articles including
A case study of the used of Advanced Process Control at the Wastewater Treatment works at Lleida in Spain
A look back on an article on smart wastewater networks in order to see how the industry has measured up in the interim around the adoption of Digital Transformation in the Water Industry.
Automobile Management System Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
The proposed project is developed to manage the automobile in the automobile dealer company. The main module in this project is login, automobile management, customer management, sales, complaints and reports. The first module is the login. The automobile showroom owner should login to the project for usage. The username and password are verified and if it is correct, next form opens. If the username and password are not correct, it shows the error message.
When a customer search for a automobile, if the automobile is available, they will be taken to a page that shows the details of the automobile including automobile name, automobile ID, quantity, price etc. “Automobile Management System” is useful for maintaining automobiles, customers effectively and hence helps for establishing good relation between customer and automobile organization. It contains various customized modules for effectively maintaining automobiles and stock information accurately and safely.
When the automobile is sold to the customer, stock will be reduced automatically. When a new purchase is made, stock will be increased automatically. While selecting automobiles for sale, the proposed software will automatically check for total number of available stock of that particular item, if the total stock of that particular item is less than 5, software will notify the user to purchase the particular item.
Also when the user tries to sale items which are not in stock, the system will prompt the user that the stock is not enough. Customers of this system can search for a automobile; can purchase a automobile easily by selecting fast. On the other hand the stock of automobiles can be maintained perfectly by the automobile shop manager overcoming the drawbacks of existing system.
Saudi Arabia stands as a titan in the global energy landscape, renowned for its abundant oil and gas resources. It's the largest exporter of petroleum and holds some of the world's most significant reserves. Let's delve into the top 10 oil and gas projects shaping Saudi Arabia's energy future in 2024.
Forklift Classes Overview by Intella PartsIntella Parts
Discover the different forklift classes and their specific applications. Learn how to choose the right forklift for your needs to ensure safety, efficiency, and compliance in your operations.
For more technical information, visit our website https://intellaparts.com
Immunizing Image Classifiers Against Localized Adversary Attacksgerogepatton
This paper addresses the vulnerability of deep learning models, particularly convolutional neural networks
(CNN)s, to adversarial attacks and presents a proactive training technique designed to counter them. We
introduce a novel volumization algorithm, which transforms 2D images into 3D volumetric representations.
When combined with 3D convolution and deep curriculum learning optimization (CLO), itsignificantly improves
the immunity of models against localized universal attacks by up to 40%. We evaluate our proposed approach
using contemporary CNN architectures and the modified Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR-10
and CIFAR-100) and ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC12) datasets, showcasing
accuracy improvements over previous techniques. The results indicate that the combination of the volumetric
input and curriculum learning holds significant promise for mitigating adversarial attacks without necessitating
adversary training.
Explore the innovative world of trenchless pipe repair with our comprehensive guide, "The Benefits and Techniques of Trenchless Pipe Repair." This document delves into the modern methods of repairing underground pipes without the need for extensive excavation, highlighting the numerous advantages and the latest techniques used in the industry.
Learn about the cost savings, reduced environmental impact, and minimal disruption associated with trenchless technology. Discover detailed explanations of popular techniques such as pipe bursting, cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) lining, and directional drilling. Understand how these methods can be applied to various types of infrastructure, from residential plumbing to large-scale municipal systems.
Ideal for homeowners, contractors, engineers, and anyone interested in modern plumbing solutions, this guide provides valuable insights into why trenchless pipe repair is becoming the preferred choice for pipe rehabilitation. Stay informed about the latest advancements and best practices in the field.
TECHNICAL TRAINING MANUAL GENERAL FAMILIARIZATION COURSEDuvanRamosGarzon1
AIRCRAFT GENERAL
The Single Aisle is the most advanced family aircraft in service today, with fly-by-wire flight controls.
The A318, A319, A320 and A321 are twin-engine subsonic medium range aircraft.
The family offers a choice of engines
TECHNICAL TRAINING MANUAL GENERAL FAMILIARIZATION COURSE
passive and active remote sensing systems, characteristics and operations
1. (passive and active remote sensing systems,
characteristics and operations)
Student Name: Copyright
Class: 4th Stage
Course Title: remote sensing
Department: Geomatics Department
College of Engineering
Salahaddin University-Erbil
Academic Year 2019-2020
2. 1
ABSTRACT
The development of remote sensing technologies increases the potential to support more
precise, efficient, and ecologically-sensitive approaches to forest resource management. One of
the primary requirements of precision forest management is accurate and detailed 3D spatial
data relating to the type and condition of forest stands and characteristics of the underlying
terrain surface. A new generation of high-resolution, active remote sensing technologies,
including airborne laser scanning (LIDAR) and interferometric synthetic aperture RADAR
(IFSAR) have the capability to provide direct, 3D measurements of forest canopy structure and
topography. remote sensing is the process of detecting and monitoring the physical
characteristics of an area by measuring its reflected and emitted radiation at a distance (typically
from satellite or aircraft). Special cameras collect remotely sensed images, which help
researchers "sense" things about the Earth. The sun provides a very convenient source of energy
for remote sensing. The sun's energy is either reflected, as it is for visible wavelengths, or
absorbed and then re-emitted, as it is for thermal infrared wavelengths. Remote sensing systems
which measure energy that is naturally available are called passive sensors. Passive sensors can
only be used to detect energy when the naturally occurring energy is available. For all reflected
energy, this can only take place during the time when the sun is illuminating the Earth. There is
no reflected energy available from the sun at night. Energy that is naturally emitted (such as
thermal infrared) can be detected day or night, as long as the amount of energy is large enough
to be recorded. Active sensors, on the other hand, provide their own energy source for
illumination. The sensor emits radiation which is directed toward the target to be investigated.
The radiation reflected from that target is detected and measured by the sensor. Active sensors
can be used for examining wavelengths that are not sufficiently provided by the sun, such as
microwaves, or to better control the way a target is illuminated. However, active systems
require the generation of a fairly large amount of energy to adequately illuminate targets.
4. 3
INTRODUCTION
Remote sensing instruments are of two primary types— active and passive. Active sensors,
provide their own source of energy to illuminate the objects they observe. An active sensor
emits radiation in the direction of the target to be investigated. The sensor then detects and
measures the radiation that is reflected or backscattered from the target. Passive sensors, on the
other hand, detect natural energy (radiation) that is emitted or reflected by the object or scene
being observed. Reflected sunlight is the most common source of radiation measured by passive
sensors. A passive sensor is a device that detects and responds to some type of input from the
physical environment.
Passive sensor technologies gather target data through the detection of vibrations, light,
radiation, heat or other phenomena occurring in the subject’s environment. They contrast with
active sensors, which include transmitters that send out a signal, a light wavelength or electrons
to be bounced off the target, with data gathered by the sensor upon their reflection. Both active
and passive sensing technologies are often used to make observations and measurements from a
distance or on a scale beyond those observable to the naked eye. Sensors can also be used in
harsh environments and places inaccessible to people. Examples of passive sensor-based
technologies include: Photographic, thermal, electric field sensing, chemical, infrared and
seismic. However, as can be the case with some sensors, seismic and infrared light sensors exist
in both active and passive forms. Depending on what is being sensed these various sensors
might be mounted to a satellite, airplane, boat, submarine UAV drone, or from another
convenient point of observation such as a building top. The data gathered by remote sensing is
used for everything from cartography to resource exploration to atmospheric and chemical
measurements. Remote sensing is also one of the basic enabling technologies for the Internet of
Things (IoT), in which almost any imaginable entity can be equipped with a unique identifier
and the ability to transfer data over a network autonomously. Both types of sensors have
benefits and drawbacks. Passive sensor technologies can't be detected by observed parties as
they only sense what is in the environment rather than relying on a transmitter whose activity
5. 4
might be detected with equipment. Active sensors, however, can sometimes be used when
passive sources of observations by sensor are impossible. Passive sensors include different
types of radiometers and spectrometers.
An active sensor is a radar instrument used for measuring signals transmitted by the sensor that
were reflected, refracted or scattered by the Earth's surface or its atmosphere. Spaceborne active
sensors have a variety of applications related to meteorology and observation of the Earth's
surface and atmosphere. For example, precipitation radars measure the radar echo from rainfall
to determine the rainfall rate over the Earth's surface; and cloud profile radars measure the radar
echo return from clouds to provide a three dimensional profile of cloud reflectivity over the
Earth's surface. Spaceborne active sensors operate in the Earth Exploration-Satellite Service or
in the Space Research Service. Active sensor frequency allocations are often shared with other
radar systems, as such systems are normally compatible with the operation of the sensors.
6. 5
BACKGROUND
Most passive systems used in remote sensing applications operate in the visible, infrared,
thermal infrared, and microwave portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Passive remote
sensors include the following:
Accelerometer—An instrument that measures acceleration (change in velocity per unit
time). There are two general types of accelerometers. One measures translational
accelerations (changes in linear motions in one or more dimensions), and the other
measures angular accelerations (changes in rotation rate per unit time).
Hyperspectral radiometer—An advanced multispectral sensor that detects hundreds of
very narrow spectral bands throughout the visible, near-infrared, and mid-infrared
portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. This sensor’s very high spectral resolution
facilitates fine discrimination between different targets based on their spectral response in
each of the narrow bands.
Figure 1 accelerometer
Figure 2 hyperspectral
7. 6
Imaging radiometer—A radiometer that has a scanning capability to provide a two-
dimensional array of pixels from which an image may be produced. Scanning can be
performed mechanically or electronically by using an array of detectors.
Radiometer—An instrument that quantitatively measures the intensity of
electromagnetic radiation in some bands within the spectrum. Usually, a radiometer is
further identified by the portion of the spectrum it covers; for example, visible, infrared,
or microwave.
Sounder—An instrument that measures vertical distributions of atmospheric parameters
such as temperature, pressure, and composition from multispectral information.
Figure 5 atmospheric instrument sounder
Figure 4 infrared radiometer
Figure 3 imaging radiometer
8. 7
Spectrometer—A device that is designed to detect, measure, and analyze the spectral
content of incident electromagnetic radiation. Conventional imaging spectrometers use
gratings or prisms to disperse the radiation for spectral discrimination.
Spectroradiometer—A radiometer that measures the intensity of radiation in multiple
wavelength bands (i.e., multispectral). Many times the bands are of high-spectral
resolution, designed for remotely sensing specific geophysical parameters
The majority of active sensors operate in the microwave portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum, which makes them able to penetrate the atmosphere under most conditions. An active
technique views the target from either end of a baseline of known length. The change in
apparent view direction (parallax) is related to the absolute distance between the instrument and
target.
Figure 6 spectrometer
Figure 7 spectroradiometer-DTS140- instrument system
9. 8
Laser altimeter—An instrument that uses LIDAR to measure the height of the platform
(spacecraft or aircraft) above the surface. The height of the platform with respect to the
mean Earth’s surface is used to determine the topography of the underlying surface.
LIDAR—A light detection and ranging sensor that uses a laser (light amplification by
stimulated emission of radiation) radar to transmit a light pulse and a receiver with
sensitive detectors to measure the backscattered or reflected light. Distance to the object
is determined by recording the time between transmitted and backscattered pulses and by
using the speed of light to calculate the distance traveled.
Figure 8 laser altimeter
Figure 9 lider remote sensing
10. 9
Radar—An active radio detection and ranging sensor that
provides its own source of electromagnetic energy. An active
radar sensor, whether airborne or space borne, emits
microwave radiation in a series of pulses from an antenna.
When the energy reaches the target, some of the energy is
reflected back toward the sensor. This backscattered
microwave radiation is detected, measured, and timed. The time
required for the energy to travel to the target and return back to the sensor determines the
distance or range to the target. By recording the range and magnitude of the energy
reflected from all targets as the system passes by, a two-dimensional image of the surface
can be produced.
Ranging Instrument—A device that measures the distance between the instrument and a
target object. Radars and altimeters work by determining the time a transmitted pulse
(microwaves or light) takes to reflect from a target and return to the instrument. Another
technique employs identical microwave instruments on a pair of platforms. Signals are
transmitted from each instrument to the other, with the distance between the two
determined from the difference between the received signal phase and transmitted
(reference) phase. These are examples of active techniques. An active technique views
the target from either end of a baseline of known length. The change in apparent view
direction (parallax) is related to the absolute distance between the instrument and target.
Scatterometer—A high-frequency microwave radar designed specifically to measure
backscattered radiation. Over ocean surfaces,
measurements of backscattered radiation in the
microwave spectral region can be used to derive
maps of surface wind speed and direction.
Figure 10 radar
Figure 11 scatterometer
11. 10
METHOD
Comparing active and passive microwave sensors
Passive microwave remote sensing Active microwave remote sensing
Sensor examples
AMSU-A & -B, MHS, ATMS, NPOESS. Jason-1and 2, Envisat ASAR, RA-2,
RADARSAT.
Measurement capabilities
Sense emitted microwave energy from
terrestrial sources.
Send and receive electromagnetic pulses of
energy.
Cloud and precipitations information
from layers.
Cloud and precipitation information from discrete
levels.
Sea surface wind vectors (WindSat,
MIS*), salinity.
Sea surface wind vectors, salinity.
Precipitations (rain rate and snowfall). Precipitation (rain rate and snowfall).
Cloud properties (microphysics, cloud top
and base).
Cloud properties (microphysics, cloud top, and
base).
Atmospheric temperature and moisture
profiling.
Snow and sea ice coverage and extent,
sea ice age.
Snow and sea ice coverage and extent, river ice
movement.
Snow cover characteristics Snow cover characteristics.
Soil moisture / surface wetness Soil moisture / surface wetness
Sea surface temperature Ocean surface topography, sea surface state, heat
storage and transfer (from radar altimeters).
Table 1
12. 11
Advantages & disadvantages of active sensors
advantages disadvantages
Better control of noise sources
Through control of injected of signal.
because both of sources and receivers are under
the surveyor’s control, he must supply both.
Therefore, filed equipment tends to be more
complex.
Because propagating filed are generally
measured, active experiments usually provided
better depth control over source of anomalous
signal.
Field operations and logistics are generally
more complex and time consuming than passive
experiments.
Many different source/receiver configurations
can be used allowing for a wide variety of
survey designs. This allows survey designers
great flexibility in customizing surveys for
particular problems.
Many different source/receiver configurations
can be used allowing for a wide variety of
survey designs. The increase in the number of
field options inevitably leads to greater survey
design coasts and potentially to increased
probability of field
Once set up, active experiments are capable of
producing vast quantities of data that can be
used to interprets subtle details of the earth’s
subsurface.
The large quantity of data obtained in many
active experiments can become overwhelming
to process and interpret.
Table 2
13. 12
Advantage & disadvantage of passive sensors
advantages Disadvantages
Surveyor need only record a naturally
occurring field; therefore, he need supply
only a sensor and a data recorder.
Less controls of noise because source of the
signal is out of the control of the surveyor.
Field operation are generally very time
officiant. Thus, passive experiments can be
run over wider areas in a more cost-effective
manner .
Because passive fields are generally the result
of integrating anomalous geologic
contributions over wide areas, identification
of the source of an anomalous reading can be
difficult.
One or two well-established field procedures
are generally used. Contractors can provide
these surveys on short notice with relatively
easily quantifiable results.
One or two well-established field procedures
is generally used. This limits the amount of
customization that can be done for specific
problems.
Interpretation of the limited set of
observations can be accomplished with
modest computational requirements quickly
and efficiently.
The data sets collected in passive experiments
are smaller than those collected in active
experiments and usually do not allow for as
detailed an interpretation.
Table 3
14. 13
THEORY
Examples of passive and active remote sensing
Now that we have a clear understanding of passive and active remote sensing, let’s see it in action
for satellite sensors. In the schematic below, you can see how the sun emits light. First, light passes
through the atmospheric window. Then, it reflects off Earth to a satellite sensor orbiting Earth.
Figure 12 active remote sensing
Active Sensors
An active sensor is a radar instrument used for measuring signals transmitted by the
sensor that were reflected, refracted or scattered by the Earth's surface or its
atmosphere.
Spaceborne active sensors have a variety of applications related to meteorology and
observation of the Earth's surface and atmosphere.
Examples of passive sensor-based technologies include: Photographic, thermal, electric
field sensing, chemical, infrared and seismic.
Active Sensor: Active sensor is used for sensing environment conditions and transmitted
signals. It is an electronic sensing device which requires AC and DC source for produce output.
Figure 13
15. 14
Whereas active sensors illuminate their target. In this example, it’s a side-looking sensor that sends
its own pulse to Earth’s surface. First, it bounces off the ground. Then, it bounces again off a
building. Finally, it returns back to the sensor again. Actually, this type of backscatter is
called double bounce backscatter.
Figure 14 passive remote sensing
Passive sensor
A passive sensor is a microwave instrument designed to receive and to measure natural
emissions produced by constituents of the Earth's surface and its atmosphere.
The power measured by passive sensors is a function of the surface composition,
physical temperature, surface roughness, and other physical characteristics of the Earth.
The frequency bands for passive sensor measurements are determined by fixed physical
properties (molecular resonance) of the substance being measured. These frequencies
do not change and information cannot be duplicated in other frequency bands.
Examples of other active sensor-based technologies include: scanning electron
microscopes, LiDAR, radar, GPS, x-ray, sonar, infrared and seismic.
Figure 15
16. 15
Active remote sensing image example If you ever have a chance to see a synthetic aperture
radar image, it will look speckled like this:
Figure 16 active remote sensing (radar image)
For the untrained eye, it’s just a bunch of black and white pixels. But the reality is that there’s more
that meets the eye. For example, the 3 main types of backscatter are:
Specular reflection
Double-bounce
Diffuse scattering
SPECULAR REFLECTION: Specular reflection is where dark spots are in the image. In this
case, it’s the smooth surfaces like the east-west flowing river and paved surfaces.
DOUBLE-BOUNCE: The bright white in the center is double-bounce backscatter at work. As
shown in the schematic above, it’s an urban feature like a building but it’s not entirely clear at this
scale.
DIFFUSE SCATTERING: Finally, the majority of the radar image is rough surface and diffuse
scattering. This may be from the growing vegetation in the agriculture areas.
17. 16
Passive remote sensing image example
Really, passive remote sensing can be very similar to how our eyes interpret the world. For
example, here are the Rocky Mountains in true color.
Figure 17 passive remote sensing image
But the power of passive remote sensing is to see light in the whole electromagnetic spectrum. For
example, this multispectral image can have different band combinations like color infrared.
What’s important to realize is that how it emphasizes healthy vegetation in bright red. To say the
least, there is a lot of it in this scene. While the bright white is built-up areas, the darkest shade is
water. In the east, this could be a transmission line right-of-way because how it’s constantly the
same width.
Finally, you can see the world much sharper using
the panchromatic band. If you want to pan-sharpen
an image, this is the spectral band that you use.
Figure 18 infrared color (passive remote sensing)
Figure 19 spectral band
18. 17
What are some applications for passive remote sensing?
In terms of passive remote sensing, the Landsat mission is the longest-running earth observation
program. For over 40 years, Landsat has collected and documented our changing planet.
Landsat science helps understand Earth’s climate, ecosystems and land use. For over 40 years,
the Landsat missions have been an eyewitness of our changing planet. Because of it, we have a
historical barometer where we gauge change and plan our future as a planet. Researchers have
published thousands of publications using Landsat data. Also, Digital Globe and Planet
Labs are commercial satellites with hundreds of remote sensing applications & uses.
What are some applications for active remote sensing?
Two of the key advantages of active remote sensing are:
The capability to collect imagery night and day.
It is unfazed by clouds and poor weather conditions.
The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) uses inSAR which measures
Earth’s elevation with two antennas. In only a couple days, SRTM has collected one of the most
accurate digital elevation models of Earth.
Figure 20
19. 18
Light detection and Ranging (LiDAR) is an active sensor that measures ground
height. Using light from an airplane or helicopter platform, it measures the time it takes to
bounce back to the sensor. From this, you can create Digital Surface Models which is useful in
forestry.
Active remote sensing has been used for a variety of security applications
including marine and Arctic monitoring. As shown previously, the double-bounce scattering has
provided critical information in search and rescue missions.
Active sensor examples include: The Canadian Space Agency’s RADARSAT-
1 and RADARSAT-2 and Airbus Defense & Space TerraSAR-X Radar Satellite.
APPLICACTIONS OF ACTIVE & PASSIVE SENSORS
Radarsat: imaging characteristics, mapping of vegetation, vegetated terrain and sand
terrain.
LISS: land use, land cover and geological aspects.
SPOT: resources of earth and environmental aspects.
Landsat: seasonal features like weather, atmosphere, rainfall on images.
20. 19
Conclusion
Sensor is a device comprising of optical component or system and a detector electronic
circuity used to record.
It is a very important component in remote sensing.
Active sensors are more advantageous than passive sensors.
LISS is one of the active sensors which is launched in Indian satellites.
LISS-2 is the advanced version carried by the Indian satellite IRS-1B.
REFRENCE
Mani, A., & Co-requisites, P. BCE093-REMOTE SENSING AND GIS.
Deal, Jeffrey T., and Wilson Greatbatch. "MRI-compatible medical device with passive
generation of optical sensing signals." U.S. Patent No. 6,711,440. 23 Mar. 2004..
PREAMBLE, A., & PRE-REQUISITES, B. FUNDAMENTALS OF REMOTE
SENSING AND GIS..
Cox, Helen, Kimberle Kelly, and Laura Yetter. "Using remote sensing and geospatial
technology for climate change education." Journal of Geoscience Education 62.4
(2014): 609-620..