This document discusses key geographical skills and investigations, including topographical map reading skills, geographical data techniques, and geographical investigations. It covers topics such as reading topographical maps, interpreting scales, measuring distances, describing relief features, identifying landforms, calculating gradients, interpreting map symbols, describing patterns of vegetation and land use, and explaining relationships between relief and land use. It also discusses using photographs, satellite images, and different types of graphs to depict and analyze geographical data.

1. GEOGRAPHICAL SKILLS
AND INVESTIGATIONS
In this Chapter you will explore three key topics:
• Topographical map reading skills
• Geographical data and techniques
• Geographical investigations
1

2. • Developing topographical map reading skills
allows you to:
- navigate to places
- be conscious of the environment
- understand how the environment is being
presented and (re)presented.
2
Reading topographical maps

3. Reading grid references
• They are used to identify
locations.
• Always read the eastings (x-axis,
vertical lines) then the
northings (y-axis, horizontal
lines)
• They can be:
- 4 digit grid references
(xxyy): identify an area OR
- 6 digit grid references
(xxx1yyy1): identify a point
x1 and y1 are derived by sub-dividing
the northings and
eastings into 10 segments
3
Area: 0736
Point: 088376

4. Reading directions: Compass directions
• They are used to describe
the location of one
geographic feature from
another.
• Note that 4, 8 and 16
cardinal points can be used
to provide a more precise
location.
• When identifying direction,
take note of the word
‘from’ which signifies the
point you are taking
direction from.
4
N
E
S
WNW
W
NNE
NE
NW
SW SE
ENE
ESE
SSW SSE
WSW
NNW

5. Reading directions: Compass bearings
5
• Compass bearings provide
even more precise
locations than compass
directions.
Follow these steps when measuring compass
bearing:
1.Draw a straight line to join the two objects.
2.Draw the north arrow on the object you are
measuring ‘from’.
3.Place the 0° of the protractor on the right side
of the north arrow. Read clockwise to obtain the
grid bearing.
4.If the grid bearing is more than 180°, place the
0° of the protractor on the left side of the north
arrow. Add 180° to the bearing measured by the
protractor.

6. 6
Interpreting scales
Type of scale Desription
Representative
fraction
• Written as a fraction (1/2,500) or Ratio
(1:2,500)
• No unit of measurement (can be used
for any units of measurement)
Linear scale • A visual representation using a straight
line that is divided into equal parts.
• Used to represent actual distance on
the map (e.g 2 cm represents 1 km)
Statement scale • A scale expressed in words (e.g 1 cm
represents 1 km)

7. Measuring distances
7
Straight-line distance
1. Connect two points.
2. Use a strip of paper to
mark out the distance
between the points.
3. Place the strip of paper on
the line scale.
4. Alternatively, use a
calculator to convert the
map distance into actual
distance (i.e 1cm: 1km
therefore 2.5cm=2.5 km)

8. 8
Measuring distances
Curved distances
1. Divide the curved distance
into various straight line
segments.
2. Mark each location on the
strip of paper until the whole
length of the curved route is
marked.
3. Place the strip of paper
against the scale to convert
into the actual distance.
4. Alternatively, use string to
trace the curved distance,
and then convert into actual
distance using the scale.

9. b. Describing relief and identifying features
in topographical maps
• Describing the nature of relief
• Identifying physical features and landforms
• Calculating gradient
• Interpreting map evidence
• Interpreting map symbols
• Interpreting human activities
• Describing patterns and locations of
vegetation, land use, and transport and
communication
• Explaining the relationship between relief and
land use or transport and communication 9

10. Describing the nature of relief
10
Compare the two marked areas X and Y. What
differences do you notice in these maps?
X
Y

11. Relief refers to the change in the height of a land
surface, and is about height, shape, steepness,
slope and form.
Relief can be deduced from the arrangement of
contour lines and their contour intervals.
Contours are continuous lines joining points of the
same height. As each contour is a line of equal
height, contours never cross.
11
Describing the nature of relief

12. 12
Describing the nature of relief

13. Match
the contour
patterns on
the left with
the landforms
on the right.
13

14. Identifying physical features and
landforms
14
A B
C D

15. 15
E F
G H

16. Description of landform Ans: Name of landform
• A highland more than 600 metres above sea
level.
• Have steep slopes indicated by closely spaced
contour lines.
16
A Mountain
• Steep and near-vertical rock face.
• It is indicated by closely spaced contour lines.
D Cliff
• A depression between two highlands.
• represented by v-shaped contour lines pointing
towards higher ground.
• may have a river running through it
B (River) Valley
• A low-lying land found near a river.
• Generally flat and can be identified by the lack of
contour lines or widely spaced contours.
H Floodplain
• A highland with steep slopes and a flat summit.
• Steep slopes are indicated by closely spaced
contour lines
• A flat summit is shown by the absence of
contour lines at the summit.
C Plateau

17. Calculating gradient
Gradient indicates the steepness of a slope. It
is measured by dividing the height of the land
with a given horizontal distance. Gradient is
expressed as a fraction or ratio. It is
calculated
using the formula:
Difference in height between two points
Horizontal distance between two points
Follow these steps:
1)Difference in height between two points:
maximum height minus minimum height
(using the contour values)
2)Horizontal distance: measure the distance
between the two points and convert into
actual distance
3)Divide results from (1) with (2). NOTE: both
17
(1) and (2) must be in the same units i.e
metres

18. Interpreting map symbols
Symbols represent
the actual features
on the map. They are
found in the key.
They can be used to
represent physical
features and human
activities. Some of
the examples are
seen on the left.
18

19. Interpreting human activities
19
Map symbols
help interpret
the types of
human activities
present in an
area. Human
activities may be
classified in
broad
categories:
Industries
Services and facilities
Agriculture

20. Interpreting human activities
20
Transport and communication
Settlement pattern

21. Describing patterns and location of
vegetation, land use, and transport and
communication
21

22. Explaining the relationship between relief and
land use or transport and communication
22

23. Maps and symbols
A map is a
representation of
the earth’s surface
or a part of the
earth’s surface.
Different maps
serve different
purposes.
• Base maps
• Atlas
• Topographical maps
• Road maps
• Sketch maps
• Choropleth maps
• Isoline maps
• Dot maps
• Maps with proportionate symbols
23

24. 24
No. Types of
Map
Uses
1 Base maps Focus on basic information or highlight important information by providing an
outline of the area.
2 Atlas Provide details of natural and human features/occurrences of places.
3 Topographical
maps
Show physical and human features through the use of lines, symbols, colours
and abbreviations.
4 Road maps Road maps show the location of roads, buildings, railway tracks and airports,
and used as navigation tool.
5 Sketch maps Sketch maps are simplified illustrations of an area, drawn to show the basic
positions of an area’s main features.
6 Choropleth
maps
Show the geographical distribution and trends using colours or shadings to
group different data values
7 Isoline maps Isoline maps are maps with isolines, or continuous lines joining points of equal
value
8 Dot maps Dot maps show the distribution of data using dots. The dots have a fixed size or
value and are drawn on a base map.
9 Maps with
proportionate
symbols
Symbols drawn are proportional to the values of the data being mapped. For
example, bigger symbols are accorded to larger values.

25. Photographs and satellite images
Photographs and satellite images are primary
data which provide vital information about the
physical features and human activities at a
particular place and time.
25

26. Different types of photographs and satellite images
26
Landscape photographs
Aerial photographs
• Taken from a ground level
perspective and give a horizontal
view of an area
• Show the landscape in great detail,
allowing features and patterns to
be observed
• More details in the background
can be seen due to the height in
which photograph is taken.
• Size will not be distorted, and
useful for map making.
• Taken from space, allows large
area to be captured.
• Can show the development of
place over time.
Satellite images

27. Interpreting photographs
1. What HUMAN features
(Transport and communication
networks, e.g. roads, railways,
satellite stations) are shown in
the photograph?
2. What PHYSICAL features (relief,
coast, vegetation) are shown in
the photograph?
3. Why are these features present?
4. What effects do these features
have on the physical and human
environments?
27

28. Graphs A graph is a diagram used
to represent data which
shows the relationship
between two or more
variables. A variable is
something that is
measured and which
helps us understand data
more easily.
• Line graphs
• Bar graphs
• Histograms
• Pie charts
• Scattergraphs
• Climographs
• Triangular graphs (For GCE O-Level only)
28

29. Simple line graphs
1. Decide on your
independent (x-axis)
and dependant
variable (y- axis)
2. Plot the value of
both variables on
the graph paper.
3. Deduce the
relationship
between the two
variables i.e as air
temperature
increases, the air can
hold higher amounts
of water vapour.
29
Air
temperature:
independent
variable
Water vapour:
dependent
variable

30. Comparative line graphs
30
Allows comparison of
two or more sets of
data
Compound line graphs
Allows one set of data
to be sub-divided into
two or more sets of
data

31. Bar graphs
1. Decide on your independent (x-axis)
and dependant variable (y-axis).
2. Plot the value of both variables
on the graph paper.
3. Compare the values among the
different independent variables.
i.e Indonesia has highest
fatalities related to tectonic
activities among the other 3
countries.
31

32. Comparative bar graphs
32
Allows comparison of
two or more sets of
data
Compound bar graphs
Allows one set of data
to be sub-divided into
two or more sets of
data

33. Histogram
1. Histograms show
distribution or
frequency of data.
The x-axis shows the
range of values.
2. The values do not
overlap. The y-axis
shows the frequency.
3. Different from bar
graphs because x-axis
33
states
size/classes and not
categories.

34. Pie charts
1. Pie charts are
circular graphs
divided into
segments.
2. Each segment of a
pie chart represents
the portion a
variable takes up.
3. Each data set has to
be converted into a
percentage of the
data set.
34

35. Scattergraphs
35
1. Plot data using ‘X’s.
2. Draw a straight line of best fit. This will broadly represent
the general pattern formed by the two points.
3. Take note of any anomalies.

36. Climographs
1. A climograph shows how mean
monthly temperature and total
monthly precipitation vary
throughout the year for a
particular place.
2. The temperature is shown using
a line graph while the
precipitation is shown using a
bar graph.
36

37. Describing climographs
37
When describing climograph, always
state the:
1.The months where the minimum and
maximum temperatures are
experienced.
2.The average temperature range
(using key terms in (a) and (b))
3.The months where it minimum and
maximum rainfall are experienced.
4.The total amount of rainfall
experienced in the place (using key
terms found in (c))

38. Triangular graphs
Triangular graphs are equilateral triangles
showing the relationship between three data
sets where the variables add up to 100.
When reading triangular graphs:
1.Determine the point you are reading the
value of.
2.Look at the base of the triangle and
determine the direction of 0 to 100. (is it left
to right? or right to left? In this case, it is left
to right)
3.Draw a line from the designated point in
the direction determined in 2. (in this case,
towards the left) and take the first reading.
4.Insert the two other lines as shown in the
figure.
5.Check and ensure all three readings add up
to 100.
38

39. 39
Triangular graphs Cont.
A A
0 100
0
100
100
0 0
100
100
0
100 0
B
C
B
C

40. 40
Other ways of presenting data

41. Statistical calculation
41
Statistical calculations aid analysis by providing more precise
calculations. Common statistical calculations are percentages,
ratios, mean, median and mode.

42. The phases in fieldwork
42

43. Choose a topic
 Geographical?
 Manageable?
 Relevant?
 Feasible?
 Focused?
Find a topic and present
to your class according to
the guidelines stated in
Find a topic and present
to your class according to
the guidelines stated in
43
the Textbook. For
example, you have to
suggest why your
the Textbook. For
example, you have to
suggest why your
chosen topic is
geographical.
chosen topic is
geographical.

44. Suggesting a hypothesis or guiding
question
44
Hypothesis Guiding Question
Expressed as a statement Expressed as a question
Consist of a prediction May consist of a problem
Explanation for something that
needs to be tested or proven
Highlights what needs to be
known about a topic
Can have more than two variables
“How long does a Secondary
4 student spend in the
washroom?”
Does not need to have an
independent or dependent variable
“The older the student, the longer
the time they spend in the
washroom.”

45. Collecting data
• Recording observations
1.Annotated photographs
2.Recording sheets
3.Maps
4.Cloud cover
• Taking measurements
45

46. Annotated photographs and
recording sheets
• Photographs can be used to record
the features on the fieldwork site
for future reference.
• Annotations can be added to
photographs to help highlight
essential information.
46
• Data collection is more
organised when tables
are included in recording
sheets

47. Maps and cloud cover
• Maps show the location of physical
features and human activities.
• Maps can also be annotated with
the locations of recorded data.
Further data analysis and
presentation can then be carried
out after fieldwork has been done.
• Cloud cover symbols
indicate the amount of
solar radiation that
reaches the earth’s
surface.
47

48. Taking measurements
• Wind speed and direction
• Air pressure
• Temperature
• Relative humidity
• Precipitation
48

49. Wind speed and direction
Anemometer
•Hold up the anemometer in an
open area where wind flows freely.
•Read the wind speed indicated.
49
Anemometer Wind vane
Wind rose
Wind vane
•Place the wind vane at where the
wind is blowing.
•The direction the wind vane points
to is the direction where the wind is
blowing from.
Wind rose
•The rectangles point in the
direction where wind is blowing
from.
•The numbers indicate the days of
the month where the wind is
blowing.

50. Air pressure
• Air pressure is measured in
millibars (mb) using a
barometer.
• A barometer has two needles.
Check that the moveable
pointer is arranged over the
measuring hand to mark the
current pressure.
• The pressure is falling if the
measuring hand moves to the
left, and rising if the measuring
hand moves to the right.
50

51. Temperature
• Temperature is measured using
an analogue or digital
thermometer.
• Temperature is read on a
maximum and minimum
thermometer by observing the
lowest point of each metal
index (blue line). For example,
in the figure, the minimum
temperature is 20°C and the
maximum temperature is 25°C.
• The diurnal temperature range
is therefore 5°C.
51
A digital thermometer
A maximum and minimum thermometer

52. Relative humidity
Relative humidity is measured using a
sling psychrometer, which consists of a
wet bulb thermometer and a dry bulb
thermometer. To calculate:
1.Dip the wick of the wet bulb in water
and swing the psychrometer for 1 min.
2.Record the reading. Repeat step 1
until both readings are consistent.
3.Read the temperature off the dry
bulb.
4.To obtain the depression of the wet
bulb, calculate the difference between
the wet bulb temperature and the dry
bulb temperatures.
5.Using the conversion table, obtain
the relative humidity by finding the
value where the wet bulb depression
intersects with the dry bulb
temperature.
52

53. Precipitation
The amount of precipitation is
measured in millimetres using a rain
gauge. A simple rain gauge can be made
using a funnel and a jar or tin. To
determine the amount of precipitation:
1.Find an appropriate spot to place your
rain gauge and position the rain gauge
in an open area.
2.Place the rain gauge into the ground
with about 30 cm protruding above
ground.
3.Record the time at which the rainfall
events start and end.
4.Pour the collected water in the rain
gauge into a measuring cylinder. Read
and record the water level.
53

54. Post-fieldwork
54