Contour diagrams
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Contours are imaginary lines on a map connecting places of equal altitude. The key characteristics of contours are that all places on a contour line have the same altitude and contours never intersect. The contour interval is the difference between two successive contour values and remains uniform on a map. Closely spaced contours indicate a steep slope while widely spaced contours show a gentle slope. Contour diagrams can be used to visualize the shape of landforms based on the spacing and shape of the contour lines.
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Topographic maps provide three-dimensional information about landforms and structures through the use of contour lines. Contour lines connect points of equal elevation and allow the reader to determine elevation, slope steepness, and identify natural and manmade features of the landscape. Topographic maps are used by engineers, the military, and for recreational activities like hiking.
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Ce6304 surveying 1 contour (iv unit) lecture ppt notes
This document discusses contour mapping and surveying techniques. It contains:
1) Definitions of key terms like contour, contour line, contour map, and contour interval.
2) Descriptions of the direct and indirect methods for locating contours in the field. The direct method involves directly tracing and marking contour points, while the indirect method involves taking spot levels and interpolating the contours.
3) Characteristics used to identify topographic features like hills, depressions, ridges, and valleys from the pattern of contour lines on a map.
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The document provides information on contouring and contour maps. It defines a contour as an imaginary line joining points of equal elevation. Contour maps show contour lines and provide information on surface altitudes and relative positions. The process of tracing contour lines is called contouring. Contour surveys are conducted for engineering projects to select sites, locate alignments, and minimize earthworks. The constant vertical distance between contours is the contour interval, while the horizontal distance varies based on slope. Contour interpolation involves proportionally spacing contours between plotted ground points based on assumed uniform slopes.
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Maps provide important information about elevation and terrain. Topographic maps use contour lines to show elevations, with closer lines indicating steeper slopes. Contour intervals are the differences in elevation between lines. Features like rivers, hills, and basins can be identified. Slope, the steepness of terrain, can be calculated using the rise (change in elevation) over the run (distance between points). Topographic maps thus allow visualization and analysis of real-world three-dimensional landscapes.
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This document discusses contour mapping and surveying techniques. It contains:
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2) Descriptions of the direct and indirect methods for locating contours in the field. The direct method involves directly tracing and marking contour points, while the indirect method involves taking spot levels and interpolating the contours.
3) Characteristics used to identify topographic features like hills, depressions, ridges, and valleys from the pattern of contour lines on a map.
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Contour & Contouring
In this lecture we will cover
definitions.
Characteristics of contour lines.
Contours used by Engineers .
Methods of locating contour.
Method of Interpolation Contours.
Contour & Contouring
A map showing the natural and cultural features as well
as showing the nature of the surface of the land (topography of the
land) of the up and downs and its representation in (3D)three
dimensions.
A contour is a line drawn on a plan joining all points of the same
height above or below a datum.
Or A contour line
is a line that passes through points having the same elevation.
contour interval
is the constant vertical distance(VD) between any two
consecutive contours is called the contour interval
. The contour interval on this map is 20m
-The choice of suitable contour interval depends on several
factors.
-Topographic Maps
-Characteristics of contour lines.
-Contours are used by Engineers to:
-Methods of locating contour:
A- The direct methods
1- Level and staff method.
2- Plan table and alidade method.
Direct method procedure:
In this method the actual contour is pegged out on the ground and its
planimetric position located. A back-sight is taken to an appropriate BM and
the HPC of the instrument is obtained, say( 34.800m.) A staff reading of
0.800m would then place the foot of the staff at the( 34m )contour level. The
staff is then moved throughout the terrain area, with its position pegged at
every 0.800m reading. In this way the 34m contour is located. Similarly a
staff reading of (1.800m) gives the 33m contour and so on. The planimetric position of the contour needs to be located using an appropriate survey technique.
1- Grid method:-
Methods of Contouring
B- Indirect contouring
*Method of Interpolation Contours.
-Plotting contours.
Prepared by:
Asst. Prof. Salar K.Hussein
Mr. Kamal Y.Abdullah
Asst.Lecturer. Dilveen H. Omar
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Technical Engineering College
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method, a line of levels is run to determine approximately reduced
levels of the points carried out with more rapidly and less precision
The aim of fly Levelling: The main purpose of this type of leveling is
to check the values of the reduced levels of the bench marks already
fixed. In this method only back sight and foresight are taken. There is no need of intermediate sights. However great care has to be taken for selecting the change points (Turning Points) and for taking reading on the change points because the accuracy of leveling depends upon these
-Create Bench Marks (BM).
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1-Perment Bench Mark.
2-Orbitrary Bench Mark .
3-Temporary Bench Mark .
-Leveling Process Calculation.
1. Height of collimation method
2. Rise and Fall method
How do we find horizontal distance using levelling Machine.
Fly Levelling Close loop survey.
Fly and Differential leveling Using (Rise & fall) and (HI)methods.
*Checks for Errors
-Misclosure
Allowable closing error
Where:
D =Distance in km
E = Misclosure error in (mm).
C = 30 for fixed levelling process in rough ground.
C = 15 for normal leveling in flat area (Good work)
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Computation of Elevations
Differential Leveling
Computation of Elevations
-Correction For Errors in Leveling
1. Errors Due to the line of sight being not horizontal
2. Error Due to Curvature and refraction.
Errors in differential leveling: -
1) Non adjustment of the instrument: -
a) Adjustment of cross-wire ring
b) Adjustment of the bubble tube
c) Adjustment of line of sight
2-Errors in levelling
• Collimation line
• Parallax
• Change point instability
• Instrument instability
• Benchmark instability
• Staff reading errors , • Staff verticality • Level Instrument shading • Temperature on staff • Booking errors) • Earth curvature • Refraction • The Bubble not center.
3-Constant error (instrumental error):
A. Non vertically of the staff.
B. Collimation error in the instrument.
C. Staff gradation error.
4- Random error (natural error):
A. Effect of wind and temperature.
B. Soft and hard ground.
C. Change points. CP
D. Human deficiencies and neglect
Prepared by:
Asst. Prof. Salar K.Hussein
Mr. Kamal Y.Abdullah
Asst.Lecturer. Dilveen H. Omar
Erbil Polytechnic University
Technical Engineering College
Civil Engineering Department
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Contour lines on a map connect points of equal elevation above sea level. They show the shape and features of the land. There are two main methods for creating contour maps - direct and indirect. The direct method precisely traces contours in the field but is slow. The indirect method takes spot elevations across an area and interpolates the contour lines, making it faster but less precise. Common indirect techniques include surveying on a grid, along cross-sections, or using a tacheometer along radial lines. Contour maps provide topographic information for engineering projects.
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In this lecture we will cover
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Contours used by Engineers .
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A map showing the natural and cultural features as well
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Or A contour line
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. The contour interval on this map is 20m
-The choice of suitable contour interval depends on several
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A- The direct methods
1- Level and staff method.
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Direct method procedure:
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every 0.800m reading. In this way the 34m contour is located. Similarly a
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Methods of Contouring
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-Plotting contours.
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Asst. Prof. Salar K.Hussein
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Asst.Lecturer. Dilveen H. Omar
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This document summarizes a study that mapped groundwater potential zones in the Muvattupuzha block of Kerala, India using GIS and remote sensing. Key factors like geology, geomorphology, lineaments, drainage density, rainfall, land use, slope and soils were analyzed as layers in GIS. Weighted overlay analysis was used to delineate excellent, moderate and poor groundwater potential zones. Validation with field data found good correlation. The study aims to aid groundwater development and management to address water scarcity in the region.
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surveying Engineering
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Fly leveling: -Fly leveling is just like differential leveling carried
out to check the accuracy of leveling work. It is a very approximate
form of leveling in which sights are taken as large as possible. in this
method, a line of levels is run to determine approximately reduced
levels of the points carried out with more rapidly and less precision
The aim of fly Levelling: The main purpose of this type of leveling is
to check the values of the reduced levels of the bench marks already
fixed. In this method only back sight and foresight are taken. There is no need of intermediate sights. However great care has to be taken for selecting the change points (Turning Points) and for taking reading on the change points because the accuracy of leveling depends upon these
-Create Bench Marks (BM).
Bench Marks
Bench Mark is a point of known elevation, there are three Type of Bench Marks
1-Perment Bench Mark.
2-Orbitrary Bench Mark .
3-Temporary Bench Mark .
-Leveling Process Calculation.
1. Height of collimation method
2. Rise and Fall method
How do we find horizontal distance using levelling Machine.
Fly Levelling Close loop survey.
Fly and Differential leveling Using (Rise & fall) and (HI)methods.
*Checks for Errors
-Misclosure
Allowable closing error
Where:
D =Distance in km
E = Misclosure error in (mm).
C = 30 for fixed levelling process in rough ground.
C = 15 for normal leveling in flat area (Good work)
Fly Levelling example
Computation of Elevations for an open loop survey H.I method
Computation of Elevations
Differential Leveling
Computation of Elevations
-Correction For Errors in Leveling
1. Errors Due to the line of sight being not horizontal
2. Error Due to Curvature and refraction.
Errors in differential leveling: -
1) Non adjustment of the instrument: -
a) Adjustment of cross-wire ring
b) Adjustment of the bubble tube
c) Adjustment of line of sight
2-Errors in levelling
• Collimation line
• Parallax
• Change point instability
• Instrument instability
• Benchmark instability
• Staff reading errors , • Staff verticality • Level Instrument shading • Temperature on staff • Booking errors) • Earth curvature • Refraction • The Bubble not center.
3-Constant error (instrumental error):
A. Non vertically of the staff.
B. Collimation error in the instrument.
C. Staff gradation error.
4- Random error (natural error):
A. Effect of wind and temperature.
B. Soft and hard ground.
C. Change points. CP
D. Human deficiencies and neglect
Prepared by:
Asst. Prof. Salar K.Hussein
Mr. Kamal Y.Abdullah
Asst.Lecturer. Dilveen H. Omar
Erbil Polytechnic University
Technical Engineering College
Civil Engineering Department
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This document provides guidance on reading and interpreting topographical maps. It outlines key elements such as grid lines, grid references, map scales, measuring distances, directions, bearings, representing relief features, drainage patterns, and analyzing human landscapes. Examples and exercises are provided to help students practice skills like calculating gradients, describing river flows, and inferring land use from map evidence. The goal is for students to feel confident in summarizing relief, drainage, coastal, and human features from topographical maps.
Khosla theory
Khosla modified Bligh's theory for designing irrigation structures on permeable foundations. Khosla accounted for actual flow patterns below impermeable bases, unlike Bligh. Khosla derived equations to calculate uplift pressures and exit gradients at key points for structures with single or multiple piles. He also defined safe exit gradients and developed a method of independent variables to solve complex profiles by breaking them into simple components and applying corrections. Khosla's theory is now used for designing hydraulic structures on permeable foundations.
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Contour lines on a map connect points of equal elevation above sea level. They show the shape and features of the land. There are two main methods for creating contour maps - direct and indirect. The direct method precisely traces contours in the field but is slow. The indirect method takes spot elevations across an area and interpolates the contour lines, making it faster but less precise. Common indirect techniques include surveying on a grid, along cross-sections, or using a tacheometer along radial lines. Contour maps provide topographic information for engineering projects.
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Contouring - Surveying...for civil Engineering and Architecture..
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Topographic maps use contour lines to represent the three dimensional shape of the earth's surface. Contour lines connect points of equal elevation and the interval between lines indicates the steepness of slopes. A topographic profile can be created by slicing through a map along a line and plotting the elevations to show the shape and gradient of the terrain from the side.
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This document provides information about topographic maps, including:
1. Topographic maps show elevation, shape of the earth's surface using contour lines connecting points of equal elevation. Features like water, terrain, and human structures are shown through different colors and patterns.
2. Contour lines indicate elevation changes - closely spaced lines show steep slopes, widely spaced show gentle slopes. Contour lines never cross or branch. When crossing streams, they bend upstream. Closed contours indicate hills and depressions.
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This document provides information about topographic maps, including:
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3. It provides instructions for constructing topographic profiles from contour map data and examples of profiles of different landforms.
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54. Topographical Maps Notes
A topographical map shows elevation using contour lines, which connect points of equal height. Contour lines do not cross and are closer together where slopes are steeper. They form V and U shapes around rivers and valleys. Index lines indicate elevation and are darker on the map. Stream gradient is calculated by dividing the change in elevation between two points by the distance between them.
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Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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Contour diagrams
- 1. CONTOURS
- 5. A J E F D C B T P H L S O R N Q I M K G U
- 6. 325 298 297 317 300 314 320 276 279 280 289 238 254 252 264 263 309 285 281 280 240
- 7. 325 298 297 317 .300 314 320 276 279 280 289 238 254 252 264 263 309 285 281 280 240 320 240 260 280 300 280 280 260 260 300
- 11. FORM LINES Drawn where it is not possible to draw contours and there is a prominent relief feature which is lesser in height than the contour interval
- 14. Uniform Gentle Slope 320 300 280 260 240 220
- 16. Uniform Steep Slope 320 300 280 260 240 220 200 180 160 140
- 17. Concave Slope
- 18. Concave Slope 320 300 280 260 240 220
- 19. Convex Slope
- 20. Convex Slope
- 22. VISUALISATION
- 24. CONICAL HILL 320 300 280 260
- 26. ASYMMETRICAL HILL 320 300 280 260
- 28. CICULAR PLATEAU 320 300 280 260
- 30. RIDGE 320 300 280 260
- 32. SADDLE 320 300 280 260 320
- 34. V SHAPED VALLEY 320 340 300 280 260 240 220 200 180
- 35. WATERFALL 320 340 300 280 260 240 220 200