1 sociological perspective revised

Principles of Sociology 1
The Sociological Perspective

Two Different Kinds of Science
• All sciences seek the highest possible
measure of objectivity in research through
the use of systematic observation.
• While this is the general rule for all sciences,
there is a difference in how this plays out in
the various disciplines.
• For this reason, science is divided into two
categories: the natural sciences and the
social sciences.

Sociology
• sociology = “the systematic study of
human society” (Macionis, 3).
– systematic = uses both theoretical perspectives and
research methods.
– The focus is on how behavior is shaped by group life
and how group life is shaped by individuals.
• society = “people who live in a defined
territory and share a way of life” (Macionis,
3).

Sociologists are
concerned with
every aspect of
society …

C. Wright Mills defined the sociological
imagination as an ability to see the
relationships between particular experiences
and the general society.

Historical Development
• Since early times, several people throughout
history have recorded observations on society and
social behavior.
– Confucius
– Siddharta (the Buddha)
– Plato
– Aristotle
– The Apostle Paul
– St. Augustine
– Muhammed
– Machiavelli
– Thomas Aquinas

• The Middle Ages brought an emphasis on learning, and the Protestant
Reformation (16th century) opened the door to free thinking.
• The Reformation took out the middle-man of the Church, putting the
individual “face to face with God” (Weber) – in other words, the individual was
now burdened by ideas and choices that she/he did not have to worry about
previously: “Which church do I go to?,” “Is there a God?,” “What does God
require?,” etc.
• Ironically, Protestantism changed the West by bringing about the
Enlightenment, which in turn led to “free thinking,” and – eventually – to
secularization (secular priorities over religion) and rationalization (society is
restructured in rational ways).

• The shift from the Middle Ages to the
Enlightenment brought two changes that
allowed for the emergence of the various
academic disciplines (what you think of as
“courses” that you register for):
– A new class of people who are paid to think, write,
invent, and teach – this is why we see an explosion
of knowledge and technology in the last 500 years.
– New universities that exist apart from religious
authority, and are able to pursue knowledge
wherever it leads.

• Beginning with History and Economics, the
disciplines began to emerge as specialized
academic categories.
• The industrialization of Europe (1760-1800s)
brought a new awareness of society.
• These developments were also promoted by
urbanization = the process by which people
began to populate the emerging industrial
cities.

Early Thinkers
• Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
Philosopher interested in developing a
science of society.
 positivism = “a scientific approach to
knowledge based on ‘positive’ facts as
opposed to mere speculation” (Macionis,
13).
First to come up with “sociology” as a
concept.

Early Thinkers
• Harriet Martineau (1802-1876)
 Translated Comte’s writings.
 Studied society in both Britain and the U.S.
 Wrote the first book on sociological methods
(How to Observe Morals and Methodology).
 Her research was motivated by social
activism.

Early Thinkers
• Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)
 Not an activist – Spencer only wanted to
observe and understand.
 Applied the theory of evolution to society and employed
“survival of the fittest” (Spencer’s term, not Darwin’s!) in
order to justify social inequalities.
Social Darwinism = the belief that inequalities in society
reflect a type of “natural selection.”
 This produced a type of fatalism – since Spencer’s social processes
were inevitable, why should anyone work to change things?

Your instructor at
Herbert Spencer’s
grave in London,
England (Summer,
2016).

Classical Theorists
• Émile Durkheim (1858-1917)
 Early sociology professor in France.
 Rejected the idea that human
behavior could be understood in individualistic
terms, instead insisting that it must be understood
within its wider social context.
 Passionately committed to the scientific method.
 Key Ideas: social cohesion, anomie, social density,
sacred & profane, social facts.

Your instructor at Durkheim’s grave in
Paris, France (Summer, 2009).

Classical Theorists
• Karl Marx (1818-1883)
 Had a pessimistic view of western
capitalist societies.
 Focused on economics, theorizing that those with the
power and ownership dominated and manipulated the
common worker. Thus, society is marked by class conflict.
 Wrote the Communist Manifesto with Engels.
 Key Ideas: economic determinism, false consciousness,
ideology, class consciousness, socialism.

Your instructor at
Marx’s gravesite in
London, England
(Summer, 2016).

Classical Theorists
• Max Weber (1864-1920)
 German sociology professor.
 Believed that sociologists must incorporate the
subjective perspectives and experiences of their
subjects (verstehen) into their research.
 Emphasized class, status, and power.
 Key Ideas: verstehen, multi-factored approach,
ideal type, Protestant ethic as the origin of
capitalism, rationalization, elective affinities.

Sociology in the U.S.
• The Chicago School (1890-1920)
Began at the University of Chicago with researchers like
Robert E. Park, Ernest W. Burgess, and Louis Wirth.
Relied heavily on George Herbert Mead’s idea of
symbolic interactionism.
Urban Sociology – focused on the city (layout, migration,
etc.).
In reaction to the typical (subjective) sociology of the
day, this perspective used systematic data collection.

• Jane Addams (1860-1935)
Political activist and pioneer social
worker who used her research to work
for social equality.
Dealt with issues involving race,
gender, and the poor.
Won the Nobel Prize for her founding
of Hull House, a halfway house
designed to help orphans, widows,
the poor and homeless, and
immigrants.

• W.E.B. Du Bois (1868-1963) founded the
second department of sociology in the
U.S. at Atlanta University.
• Classic works: The Philadelphia Negro: A Social Study, and
The Souls of Black Folk.
• Applied conflict theory to the plight of African-Americans in
the U.S.
• double-consciousness = the identity conflict of being both
Black and an American.
• One of the founders of the NAACP.

• Charles Cooley (1864-1929)
 Began in economics.
 Used the sociological perspective to investigate
smaller groups in order to understand society
better.
 Conceptualized the looking-glass self, which
emphasized the individual’s capacity for self-
reflection and the relationship between how we
see ourselves and how others see us.

• Robert Merton (1910-2003)
 Harvard educated sociologist who
taught at Columbia University.
 Successfully combined theory and research.
 Creates several life scales and typologies.
 Emphasized the integration of “macro” and
“micro” approaches to sociology.

The Macro/Micro Debate
• An ongoing debate within sociology concerning
where one should begin in order to adequately
understand society.
• macrosociology = begins with the big picture by
focusing on large-scale features of society.
• microsociology = attempts to understand society
by beginning at the bottom – i.e., with smaller
factors like small groups or the interaction
between individuals.

Major Approaches
• Structural-Functional
 A macro approach that regards everything as
functional.
 Society functions like a living organism made up
of parts called institutions.
 Society’s parts are structured in such a way that
society remains generally stable.
 Major theorists: Durkheim; Talcott Parsons;
Merton.

Major Approaches
• Structural-Functional (cont’d)
 Five Primary Institutions = family, religion, education,
government, and economy.
 Individuals are socialized to perform societal functions
and operate non-rationally.
 Merton conceptualized everything in society as having
two types of functions:
 a manifest (intended) function.
 a latent (unintended) function.
 also, sometimes dysfunction prevails.

Major Approaches
• Social-Conflict
 Another macro approach that sees all of
society as characterized by tension/struggle
between groups.
 As a result, society is marked by
inequality.
 Major Theorists: Marx; Weber; C. Wright
Mills; W.E.B. DuBois.

Major Approaches
• Symbolic Interactionist
 A micro approach that emphasizes
human interaction as the key to both individual
and social development.
 Especially interested in symbols: language; body
language; gestures; facial expressions; status
symbols.
 Major Theorists: George Herbert Mead; Charles
Cooley; Erving Goffman.

Major Approaches
• Symbolic Interactionist (cont’d)
 Individuals are constantly interpreting and
manipulating symbols, creating their social world
through interaction.
 We each construct a worldview that infuses life
with meaning and gives us the conceptual tools to
interpret reality.
 “Society is in your mind.”
 “society” = the sum of its parts.

Major Approaches
• Rational/Utilitarian
 Basic ideas show up in British philosophy (1700’s-1800’s),
ethics (Bentham), political theory (Locke; Mill), and
economics (Adam Smith).
 Shows up in sociology in the 1950s as a micro perspective.
 Basic Premise: people are motivated by what produces
pleasure (“good”) and repelled by what produces pain
(“bad”). Individuals will act within their own self interest.
 Society results from individuals making exchanges based
on rational cost/benefit analyses.
Major Theorists: Homans; Blau; Coleman.

Major Approaches
Theoretical Tradition Macro/Micro Human Behavior
Structural-Functional Macro
Individuals function
according to non-rational
values instilled through
socialization.
Social-Conflict Macro
Individuals are manipulated
by elite powers and kept
from thinking for themselves.
Symbolic Interactionist Micro
Individuals interpret the
symbols around them and
construct their own reality.
Rational/Utilitarian Micro
Individuals make rational
decisions out of self-interest
through cost/benefit
analyses.

Concluding Summary
• Sociology is the social science that investigates
social relationships and society at large.
• Sociological investigation requires a certain
perspective = the “sociological perspective.”
• Several important thinkers contributed to the rise
of sociology, especially the classical theorists:
Durkheim, Weber, and Marx.
• The major theoretical frameworks of sociology
are: structural-functional, social-conflict, symbolic
interactionist, and rational/utilitarian.

1 sociological perspective revised

1 sociological perspective revised

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