Uncouplers -1
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Here are the answers to the quiz questions: 1. Fructose 1-PO4 or Fructose 2,6-bisPO4 2. PEP 3. Succinyl-CoA 4. Ribose-5-PO4 and Ribulose-5-PO4 or Xylulose-5-PO4
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Oxidative phosphorylation
Oxidative phosphorylation and photophosphorylation are the two main processes by which ATP is synthesized in aerobic organisms and photosynthetic organisms, respectively. The chemiosmotic hypothesis proposes that the electron transport chain creates a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane, known as the proton motive force, which drives ATP synthase to generate ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate. The rate of oxidative phosphorylation is regulated by factors such as oxygen levels, substrate availability, ADP/ATP ratios, membrane potential, and proton leak rates.
Uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation
ATP moves from the mitochondrial matrix to the cytosol via the ATP-ADP translocase membrane transport protein. The translocase tightly couples the exchange of ADP for ATP as ATP exits. Uncouplers act to transport hydrogen ions across the inner mitochondrial membrane to the matrix without passing through ATP synthase. This short-circuits the proton gradient and results in energy being released as heat rather than being used to synthesize ATP. The malate-aspartate shuttle transfers reducing equivalents in the form of NADH from the cytosol into the mitochondrial matrix.
Chemiosmotic theory
The document discusses the chemiosmotic hypothesis, which explains how ATP synthesis is coupled to the electron transport chain. It states that (1) as electrons move through complexes I, III, and IV of the electron transport chain, protons are pumped from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space, building a proton gradient. (2) This proton gradient provides the energy for ATP synthase (Complex V) to catalyze the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP. Specifically, protons reenter the matrix through ATP synthase, driving the rotation of its membrane domain and causing conformational changes that lead to ATP production.
INHIBITORS OF ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN AND OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
BIOCHEMISTRY
INHIBITORS OF ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN AND OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
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Biosynthesis of purine & pyrimidine
This document discusses the biosynthesis of purines and pyrimidines. It explains that purines and pyrimidines are synthesized through de novo and salvage pathways. The de novo pathway involves multiple enzyme-catalyzed steps to convert simple precursors into the complex purine and pyrimidine nucleotides. This includes converting ribose-5-phosphate into inosine monophosphate (IMP) through 10 steps for purine synthesis. IMP is then used to synthesize adenine monophosphate (AMP) and guanine monophosphate (GMP). The salvage pathway recovers bases and nucleotides from degraded DNA and RNA. Pyrimidine synthesis is described as simpler than purine synthesis.
Prokaryotic Replication presentation
DNA replication in prokaryotes involves initiation, elongation, and termination phases. Initiation begins with the binding of initiator proteins to the origin of replication, unwinding the DNA helix to form replication forks. Elongation synthesizes the leading and lagging strands bidirectionally away from the origin using DNA polymerases. Termination occurs when the replication forks meet, completing duplication of the chromosome.
PYRUVATE DEHYDROGENASE COMPLEX (PDH-MULTI-ENZYME COMPLEX)
Pyruvate is converted to acetyl CoA by the pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) complex in the mitochondria. PDH is a multi-enzyme complex containing five coenzymes and three enzymes that catalyzes the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate. This generates acetyl CoA, NADH, and FADH2, with the NADH and FADH2 contributing to ATP production through oxidative phosphorylation. PDH activity is regulated by phosphorylation/dephosphorylation and end-product inhibition by acetyl CoA and NADH.
Bisubstrate reactions enzyme kinetics
This document discusses two types of bisubstrate reactions: sequential or single-displacement reactions and ping-pong or double-displacement reactions. Sequential reactions involve both substrates binding to the enzyme before products are released, and can be ordered or random. Ping-pong reactions involve one substrate binding and being modified, then releasing one product before the second substrate binds and the second product is released, regenerating the original enzyme. Examples of each type of reaction are provided to illustrate the mechanisms.
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Oxidative phosphorylation
Oxidative phosphorylation and photophosphorylation are the two main processes by which ATP is synthesized in aerobic organisms and photosynthetic organisms, respectively. The chemiosmotic hypothesis proposes that the electron transport chain creates a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane, known as the proton motive force, which drives ATP synthase to generate ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate. The rate of oxidative phosphorylation is regulated by factors such as oxygen levels, substrate availability, ADP/ATP ratios, membrane potential, and proton leak rates.
Uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation
ATP moves from the mitochondrial matrix to the cytosol via the ATP-ADP translocase membrane transport protein. The translocase tightly couples the exchange of ADP for ATP as ATP exits. Uncouplers act to transport hydrogen ions across the inner mitochondrial membrane to the matrix without passing through ATP synthase. This short-circuits the proton gradient and results in energy being released as heat rather than being used to synthesize ATP. The malate-aspartate shuttle transfers reducing equivalents in the form of NADH from the cytosol into the mitochondrial matrix.
Chemiosmotic theory
The document discusses the chemiosmotic hypothesis, which explains how ATP synthesis is coupled to the electron transport chain. It states that (1) as electrons move through complexes I, III, and IV of the electron transport chain, protons are pumped from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space, building a proton gradient. (2) This proton gradient provides the energy for ATP synthase (Complex V) to catalyze the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP. Specifically, protons reenter the matrix through ATP synthase, driving the rotation of its membrane domain and causing conformational changes that lead to ATP production.
INHIBITORS OF ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN AND OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
BIOCHEMISTRY
INHIBITORS OF ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN AND OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
PREVIOUS AIIMS, NEET, PGI CHANDIGARH QUESTIONS , NEET QUESTIONS
Biosynthesis of purine & pyrimidine
This document discusses the biosynthesis of purines and pyrimidines. It explains that purines and pyrimidines are synthesized through de novo and salvage pathways. The de novo pathway involves multiple enzyme-catalyzed steps to convert simple precursors into the complex purine and pyrimidine nucleotides. This includes converting ribose-5-phosphate into inosine monophosphate (IMP) through 10 steps for purine synthesis. IMP is then used to synthesize adenine monophosphate (AMP) and guanine monophosphate (GMP). The salvage pathway recovers bases and nucleotides from degraded DNA and RNA. Pyrimidine synthesis is described as simpler than purine synthesis.
Prokaryotic Replication presentation
DNA replication in prokaryotes involves initiation, elongation, and termination phases. Initiation begins with the binding of initiator proteins to the origin of replication, unwinding the DNA helix to form replication forks. Elongation synthesizes the leading and lagging strands bidirectionally away from the origin using DNA polymerases. Termination occurs when the replication forks meet, completing duplication of the chromosome.
PYRUVATE DEHYDROGENASE COMPLEX (PDH-MULTI-ENZYME COMPLEX)
Pyruvate is converted to acetyl CoA by the pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) complex in the mitochondria. PDH is a multi-enzyme complex containing five coenzymes and three enzymes that catalyzes the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate. This generates acetyl CoA, NADH, and FADH2, with the NADH and FADH2 contributing to ATP production through oxidative phosphorylation. PDH activity is regulated by phosphorylation/dephosphorylation and end-product inhibition by acetyl CoA and NADH.
Bisubstrate reactions enzyme kinetics
This document discusses two types of bisubstrate reactions: sequential or single-displacement reactions and ping-pong or double-displacement reactions. Sequential reactions involve both substrates binding to the enzyme before products are released, and can be ordered or random. Ping-pong reactions involve one substrate binding and being modified, then releasing one product before the second substrate binds and the second product is released, regenerating the original enzyme. Examples of each type of reaction are provided to illustrate the mechanisms.
Nucleotides metabolism
This document discusses nucleotides, their synthesis and degradation. It covers the following key points:
1. Nucleotides are composed of a nucleoside (a nitrogenous base linked to a 5-carbon sugar) bound to one or more phosphate groups. They are the monomers that make up nucleic acids like RNA and DNA.
2. Purine nucleotides are synthesized de novo through a complex 10 step pathway beginning with phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate (PRPP) and ending with inosine monophosphate (IMP). Pyrimidine nucleotides can also be synthesized from PRPP.
3. Nucleotides can be broken down through both intracellular catabolism pathways that generate purine
Transcription factors
This presentation is about the transcription machinery that is required for the transcription in eukaryotes. The comparison between the transcription factors involved in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The initiation of transcription and how it helps in producing a mRNA.
Measurement of ENZYME ACTIVITY
Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions without being consumed. Their activity can be measured by determining the amount of substrate converted to product per unit time. There are two main types of enzyme assays: continuous assays that measure reaction rates over time, and discontinuous assays that take samples at intervals to measure substrate/product levels. Common techniques to measure enzyme activity include spectrophotometry, fluorescence spectroscopy, chromatography, and radiometric methods. Spectrophotometry is often used to examine light absorption of substrates and products in the ultraviolet-visible range.
Transcription in eukaryotes
This document discusses transcription in eukaryotes. It begins with definitions of transcription and describes the basic process of RNA being synthesized from a DNA template. It then covers the mechanisms of transcription, including initiation involving RNA polymerase and transcription factors, elongation, and termination. The key similarities between prokaryotic and eukaryotic transcription are that DNA acts as a template and RNA polymerase facilitates RNA synthesis. Key differences are that eukaryotic transcription occurs in the nucleus, is carried out by three classes of RNA polymerase, and RNAs are processed in the nucleus rather than the cytoplasm.
Protein Folding Mechanism
Folding depends upon sequence of Amino Acids not the Composition. Folding starts with the secondary structure and ends at quaternary structure.
Denaturation occur at secondary, tertiary & quaternary level but not at primary level.
structure types and function of RNA
RNA is one of the major biological macromolecules essential for life. It has several types that serve different functions. Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes for protein synthesis. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is the catalytic component of ribosomes and is involved in protein translation. Transfer RNA (tRNA) transfers specific amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain during translation.
Inhibitors of transcription.pptx
Inhibitors of transcription.pptxDepartment of Biotechnology, Kamaraj college of engineering and technology
Rifampicin binds to the beta subunit of prokaryotic RNA polymerase, inhibiting prokaryotic transcription initiation. It selectively binds bacterial RNA polymerase without affecting eukaryotic polymerases. This allows rifampicin to be an effective treatment for bacterial infections like tuberculosis and leprosy. Alpha amanitin from death cap mushrooms potently inhibits RNA polymerase II during both transcription initiation and elongation, potentially causing death in 10 days from just one mushroom due to failure of gene expression.Oxidative Phosphorylation
Oxidative Phosphorylation in Plants
It is like a summary of oxidative phosphorylation and reference to textbooks is required before presentation.
Enzyme inhibition
Enzyme inhibition is explained with its kinetics, animations showing mechanism of inhibitors action, examples of inhibitors are explained in detail with Enzyme inhibited.
by Dr. N. Sivaranjani, MD
Purine degradation
This document summarizes purine biosynthesis and degradation. Purine is synthesized through an 11 step pathway forming IMP, the parent nucleotide. IMP is then used to synthesize AMP and GMP. Purines are broken down to uric acid through a multi-step process. Gout is caused by excessive uric acid formation due to increased purine biosynthesis or decreased excretion leading to uric acid crystal deposition in joints.
De novo and salvage pathway of nucleotides synthesis.pptx
This slides explains Metabolism topic "De novo and salvage pathway of nucleotides synthesis. In which synthesis of Purines and pyrimidines synthesis has been occurred. In last there is a difference between these two pathways.
Active site of enzyme
Active sites of the enzyme is that point where substrate molecule bind for the chemical reaction. It is generally found on the surface of enzyme and in some enzyme it is a “Pit” like structure
The active site is a three-dimensional cleft formed by groups that come from different parts of the amino acid sequence
The active site takes up a relatively small part of the total volume of an enzyme
Active sites are clefts or crevices
Substrates are bound to enzymes by multiple weak attractions.
The specificity of binding depends on the precisely defined arrangement of atoms in an active site.
Transcription in eukaryotes
The document summarizes transcription in eukaryotes. It discusses that eukaryotes have three RNA polymerases - Pol I, Pol II, and Pol III. Pol II is responsible for transcribing protein-encoding genes and requires general transcription factors for initiation. Transcription involves initiation, elongation, and termination phases. The RNA polymerase forms a pre-initiation complex at the promoter and then adds nucleotides during elongation. Termination occurs after RNA processing and polyadenylation.
BIOSYNTHESIS OF PURINE NUCLEOTIDES
1. The document summarizes purine nucleotide synthesis, which involves multiple enzymatic reactions using substrates like aspartate, glutamine, glycine, and CO2 to build the purine ring structure on ribose 5-phosphate.
2. Liver is the major site of de novo purine synthesis, while erythrocytes and brain must salvage purines due to their inability to synthesize them.
3. Feedback inhibition regulates purine synthesis at committed steps, and analogs like 6-mercaptopurine can inhibit pathways leading to AMP and GMP formation.
Pyrimidine Synthesis and Degradation
This document summarizes the de novo synthesis of pyrimidine nucleotides. It describes the precursors and reactions involved in synthesizing the pyrimidine ring and then attaching it to ribose phosphate to form the pyrimidine nucleotides CMP, UMP and TMP. It also discusses the conversion of UDP to CTP and dTMP, the regulation of pyrimidine synthesis, salvage pathways, catabolism of pyrimidines, and the genetic disorder orotic aciduria caused by a defect in the enzyme UMP synthase.
Enzyme classification
This document discusses the classification and nomenclature of enzymes. It notes that enzymes are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions without being consumed. There are several ways enzymes can be named, including by the type of reaction they catalyze (using a suffix like -ase), their substrate, source, regulation, or randomly. The document then describes the systematic classification system developed by the International Union of Biochemists which groups enzymes into six major classes based on the type of reaction catalyzed and assigns each an Enzyme Commission (EC) number for identification.
Allosteric enzymes
1) Allosteric enzymes have additional sites called allosteric sites that are distinct from the active site. Binding of an effector molecule to these sites can induce a conformational change in the active site, increasing or decreasing the enzyme's activity.
2) There are two main models that describe allosteric regulation - the concerted model where binding causes simultaneous changes in all subunits, and the sequential model where changes occur sequentially.
3) Allosteric enzymes exhibit sigmoidal kinetics curves rather than traditional hyperbolic curves due to their cooperative binding behavior. Positive allosteric effectors increase enzyme activity while negative effectors decrease it.
Dna topology
DNA exists in different structural forms. The most common form is B-DNA, which has a right-handed double helix structure discovered by Watson and Crick. Other forms include A-DNA, Z-DNA, and C-DNA, which differ in features like diameter, groove size, and handedness. DNA topology refers to the constrained, intertwined nature of the double helix that is influenced by factors like linking number, twist, and writhe. Topoisomerase enzymes play a role in changing DNA topology and are essential for processes like replication and transcription.
Semiconservative replication
Meselson and Stahl conducted an experiment using E. coli bacteria to test the hypothesis that DNA replicates semi-conservatively. They grew the bacteria in medium containing a heavy isotope of nitrogen, then switched the bacteria to medium with a light isotope. Analysis of DNA densities over multiple generations provided evidence that DNA replication results in one old strand and one new strand in each daughter molecule, supporting the semi-conservative model.
Inhibitors & uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation & ETC
The document provides an overview of oxidative phosphorylation and electron transport chain inhibitors and uncouplers. It discusses key concepts like the Q-cycle, shuttle systems that transport cytosolic NADH into mitochondria, uncoupling proteins, and various inhibitors that target different parts of the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation. Specific inhibitors and uncouplers mentioned include rotenone, antimycin, oligomycin, 2,4-dinitrophenol, and chloro carbonyl cyanide phenyl hydrazone. Thyroid hormones are also noted to play a role in regulating uncoupling proteins and thermogenesis.
Actin, Myosin, and Cell Movement
Actin filaments, usually in association with myosin, are responsible for many types of cell movements. Myosin is the prototype of a molecular motor—a protein that converts chemical energy in the form of ATP to mechanical energy, thus generating force and movement. The most striking variety of such movement is muscle contraction, which has provided the model for understanding actin-myosin interactions and the motor activity of myosin molecules. However, interactions of actin and myosin are responsible not only for muscle contraction but also for a variety of movements of nonmuscle cells, including cell division, so these interactions play a central role in cell biology. Moreover, the actin cytoskeleton is responsible for the crawling movements of cells across a surface, which appear to be driven directly by actin polymerization as well as actin-myosin interactions.
Inhibitors of oxidative phosphorylationppt
This document lists inhibitors that block the five complexes of oxidative phosphorylation as well as the ATP synthase and ATP-ADP translocase. It provides examples of specific inhibitors such as rotenone for complex I, antimycin A for complex III, and oligomycin for ATP synthase. The document also discusses uncouplers that dissipate the proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane, preventing ATP synthesis but allowing the electron transport chain to continue producing heat. Hibernating animals use this mechanism to stay warm in winter without needing ATP.
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Nucleotides metabolism
This document discusses nucleotides, their synthesis and degradation. It covers the following key points:
1. Nucleotides are composed of a nucleoside (a nitrogenous base linked to a 5-carbon sugar) bound to one or more phosphate groups. They are the monomers that make up nucleic acids like RNA and DNA.
2. Purine nucleotides are synthesized de novo through a complex 10 step pathway beginning with phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate (PRPP) and ending with inosine monophosphate (IMP). Pyrimidine nucleotides can also be synthesized from PRPP.
3. Nucleotides can be broken down through both intracellular catabolism pathways that generate purine
Transcription factors
This presentation is about the transcription machinery that is required for the transcription in eukaryotes. The comparison between the transcription factors involved in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The initiation of transcription and how it helps in producing a mRNA.
Measurement of ENZYME ACTIVITY
Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions without being consumed. Their activity can be measured by determining the amount of substrate converted to product per unit time. There are two main types of enzyme assays: continuous assays that measure reaction rates over time, and discontinuous assays that take samples at intervals to measure substrate/product levels. Common techniques to measure enzyme activity include spectrophotometry, fluorescence spectroscopy, chromatography, and radiometric methods. Spectrophotometry is often used to examine light absorption of substrates and products in the ultraviolet-visible range.
Transcription in eukaryotes
This document discusses transcription in eukaryotes. It begins with definitions of transcription and describes the basic process of RNA being synthesized from a DNA template. It then covers the mechanisms of transcription, including initiation involving RNA polymerase and transcription factors, elongation, and termination. The key similarities between prokaryotic and eukaryotic transcription are that DNA acts as a template and RNA polymerase facilitates RNA synthesis. Key differences are that eukaryotic transcription occurs in the nucleus, is carried out by three classes of RNA polymerase, and RNAs are processed in the nucleus rather than the cytoplasm.
Protein Folding Mechanism
Folding depends upon sequence of Amino Acids not the Composition. Folding starts with the secondary structure and ends at quaternary structure.
Denaturation occur at secondary, tertiary & quaternary level but not at primary level.
structure types and function of RNA
RNA is one of the major biological macromolecules essential for life. It has several types that serve different functions. Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes for protein synthesis. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is the catalytic component of ribosomes and is involved in protein translation. Transfer RNA (tRNA) transfers specific amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain during translation.
Inhibitors of transcription.pptx
Inhibitors of transcription.pptxDepartment of Biotechnology, Kamaraj college of engineering and technology
Rifampicin binds to the beta subunit of prokaryotic RNA polymerase, inhibiting prokaryotic transcription initiation. It selectively binds bacterial RNA polymerase without affecting eukaryotic polymerases. This allows rifampicin to be an effective treatment for bacterial infections like tuberculosis and leprosy. Alpha amanitin from death cap mushrooms potently inhibits RNA polymerase II during both transcription initiation and elongation, potentially causing death in 10 days from just one mushroom due to failure of gene expression.Oxidative Phosphorylation
Oxidative Phosphorylation in Plants
It is like a summary of oxidative phosphorylation and reference to textbooks is required before presentation.
Enzyme inhibition
Enzyme inhibition is explained with its kinetics, animations showing mechanism of inhibitors action, examples of inhibitors are explained in detail with Enzyme inhibited.
by Dr. N. Sivaranjani, MD
Purine degradation
This document summarizes purine biosynthesis and degradation. Purine is synthesized through an 11 step pathway forming IMP, the parent nucleotide. IMP is then used to synthesize AMP and GMP. Purines are broken down to uric acid through a multi-step process. Gout is caused by excessive uric acid formation due to increased purine biosynthesis or decreased excretion leading to uric acid crystal deposition in joints.
De novo and salvage pathway of nucleotides synthesis.pptx
This slides explains Metabolism topic "De novo and salvage pathway of nucleotides synthesis. In which synthesis of Purines and pyrimidines synthesis has been occurred. In last there is a difference between these two pathways.
Active site of enzyme
Active sites of the enzyme is that point where substrate molecule bind for the chemical reaction. It is generally found on the surface of enzyme and in some enzyme it is a “Pit” like structure
The active site is a three-dimensional cleft formed by groups that come from different parts of the amino acid sequence
The active site takes up a relatively small part of the total volume of an enzyme
Active sites are clefts or crevices
Substrates are bound to enzymes by multiple weak attractions.
The specificity of binding depends on the precisely defined arrangement of atoms in an active site.
Transcription in eukaryotes
The document summarizes transcription in eukaryotes. It discusses that eukaryotes have three RNA polymerases - Pol I, Pol II, and Pol III. Pol II is responsible for transcribing protein-encoding genes and requires general transcription factors for initiation. Transcription involves initiation, elongation, and termination phases. The RNA polymerase forms a pre-initiation complex at the promoter and then adds nucleotides during elongation. Termination occurs after RNA processing and polyadenylation.
BIOSYNTHESIS OF PURINE NUCLEOTIDES
1. The document summarizes purine nucleotide synthesis, which involves multiple enzymatic reactions using substrates like aspartate, glutamine, glycine, and CO2 to build the purine ring structure on ribose 5-phosphate.
2. Liver is the major site of de novo purine synthesis, while erythrocytes and brain must salvage purines due to their inability to synthesize them.
3. Feedback inhibition regulates purine synthesis at committed steps, and analogs like 6-mercaptopurine can inhibit pathways leading to AMP and GMP formation.
Pyrimidine Synthesis and Degradation
This document summarizes the de novo synthesis of pyrimidine nucleotides. It describes the precursors and reactions involved in synthesizing the pyrimidine ring and then attaching it to ribose phosphate to form the pyrimidine nucleotides CMP, UMP and TMP. It also discusses the conversion of UDP to CTP and dTMP, the regulation of pyrimidine synthesis, salvage pathways, catabolism of pyrimidines, and the genetic disorder orotic aciduria caused by a defect in the enzyme UMP synthase.
Enzyme classification
This document discusses the classification and nomenclature of enzymes. It notes that enzymes are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions without being consumed. There are several ways enzymes can be named, including by the type of reaction they catalyze (using a suffix like -ase), their substrate, source, regulation, or randomly. The document then describes the systematic classification system developed by the International Union of Biochemists which groups enzymes into six major classes based on the type of reaction catalyzed and assigns each an Enzyme Commission (EC) number for identification.
Allosteric enzymes
1) Allosteric enzymes have additional sites called allosteric sites that are distinct from the active site. Binding of an effector molecule to these sites can induce a conformational change in the active site, increasing or decreasing the enzyme's activity.
2) There are two main models that describe allosteric regulation - the concerted model where binding causes simultaneous changes in all subunits, and the sequential model where changes occur sequentially.
3) Allosteric enzymes exhibit sigmoidal kinetics curves rather than traditional hyperbolic curves due to their cooperative binding behavior. Positive allosteric effectors increase enzyme activity while negative effectors decrease it.
Dna topology
DNA exists in different structural forms. The most common form is B-DNA, which has a right-handed double helix structure discovered by Watson and Crick. Other forms include A-DNA, Z-DNA, and C-DNA, which differ in features like diameter, groove size, and handedness. DNA topology refers to the constrained, intertwined nature of the double helix that is influenced by factors like linking number, twist, and writhe. Topoisomerase enzymes play a role in changing DNA topology and are essential for processes like replication and transcription.
Semiconservative replication
Meselson and Stahl conducted an experiment using E. coli bacteria to test the hypothesis that DNA replicates semi-conservatively. They grew the bacteria in medium containing a heavy isotope of nitrogen, then switched the bacteria to medium with a light isotope. Analysis of DNA densities over multiple generations provided evidence that DNA replication results in one old strand and one new strand in each daughter molecule, supporting the semi-conservative model.
Inhibitors & uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation & ETC
The document provides an overview of oxidative phosphorylation and electron transport chain inhibitors and uncouplers. It discusses key concepts like the Q-cycle, shuttle systems that transport cytosolic NADH into mitochondria, uncoupling proteins, and various inhibitors that target different parts of the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation. Specific inhibitors and uncouplers mentioned include rotenone, antimycin, oligomycin, 2,4-dinitrophenol, and chloro carbonyl cyanide phenyl hydrazone. Thyroid hormones are also noted to play a role in regulating uncoupling proteins and thermogenesis.
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De novo and salvage pathway of nucleotides synthesis.pptx
De novo and salvage pathway of nucleotides synthesis.pptx
Inhibitors & uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation & ETC
Inhibitors & uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation & ETC
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Actin, Myosin, and Cell Movement
Actin filaments, usually in association with myosin, are responsible for many types of cell movements. Myosin is the prototype of a molecular motor—a protein that converts chemical energy in the form of ATP to mechanical energy, thus generating force and movement. The most striking variety of such movement is muscle contraction, which has provided the model for understanding actin-myosin interactions and the motor activity of myosin molecules. However, interactions of actin and myosin are responsible not only for muscle contraction but also for a variety of movements of nonmuscle cells, including cell division, so these interactions play a central role in cell biology. Moreover, the actin cytoskeleton is responsible for the crawling movements of cells across a surface, which appear to be driven directly by actin polymerization as well as actin-myosin interactions.
Inhibitors of oxidative phosphorylationppt
This document lists inhibitors that block the five complexes of oxidative phosphorylation as well as the ATP synthase and ATP-ADP translocase. It provides examples of specific inhibitors such as rotenone for complex I, antimycin A for complex III, and oligomycin for ATP synthase. The document also discusses uncouplers that dissipate the proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane, preventing ATP synthesis but allowing the electron transport chain to continue producing heat. Hibernating animals use this mechanism to stay warm in winter without needing ATP.
Proteoglycans and glycoproteins
Proteoglycans are complex macromolecules consisting of a core protein with one or more glycosaminoglycan chains attached. They are found mainly in connective tissues and help modulate cellular development processes. Glycoproteins contain oligosaccharide chains covalently bonded to amino acids on their polypeptide side chains. They are found in cellular membranes and function in cellular recognition. Some examples of glycoproteins discussed are mucins, transferrins, fibrinogen, follicle-stimulating hormone, and erythropoietin.
Chemiosmotic theory
The document summarizes key theories and mechanisms of oxidative phosphorylation:
1) Chemiosmotic theory proposed by Peter Mitchell describes how ATP synthesis is coupled to respiration via an electrochemical proton gradient generated by electron transport complexes pumping protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane.
2) Boyer's binding change mechanism describes how ATP synthase uses the proton gradient to drive the sequential binding and conformational changes of its beta subunits to synthesize ATP.
3) Factors that regulate oxidative phosphorylation include inhibitors that block electron transport complexes or uncouple the proton gradient from ATP synthesis.
Abc seminar
This document summarizes mechanisms of multidrug resistance (MDR) in organisms like bacteria and cancer cells. It discusses how MDR occurs through several mechanisms including enzymatic degradation of drugs, mutation of drug binding sites, downregulation of membrane proteins, and increased activity of efflux pumps that export drugs from cells. A major contributor to MDR is the increased expression of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters like P-glycoprotein, which use ATP hydrolysis to actively transport various drugs out of cells, reducing their effectiveness. Understanding the structure and transport mechanisms of ABC transporters may help in developing new strategies to overcome MDR.
Atp synthase
ATP synthase—also called FoF1 ATPase is the universal protein that terminates oxidative phosphorylation by synthesizing ATP from ADP and phosphate.
ATP Synthase is one of the most important enzymes found in the mitochondria of cells
microtubules and microfilaments
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Actin and myosin
The document summarizes the process of muscle contraction via actin and myosin. Calcium ions are released which bind to troponin, displacing tropomyosin and exposing myosin binding sites on actin filaments. Myosin heads attach and change position to slide actin filaments, then detach when ATP binds. Hydrolysis of ATP provides energy to detach myosin heads, and calcium is reabsorbed allowing tropomyosin to reblock binding sites.
Microtubules Structure and Function
Microtubules are thick protein tubes composed of subunits called tubulin. They function to transport vesicles and organelles within cells, assist in cell division and motility, and help maintain intracellular structure. Microtubules are essential components of eukaryotic cells that participate in nucleic and cell division, organization of intracellular structure, and transport, as well as cell motility.
Electron Transport Chain ETC
The electron transport chain (ETC) is a series of protein complexes and carriers in the inner mitochondrial membrane that transport electrons from electron donors like NADH to final acceptors like oxygen. This transports protons from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space, building up a proton gradient. ATP synthase uses this proton gradient to phosphorylate ADP, producing approximately 34 ATP per glucose. The ETC is crucial for aerobic respiration as it extracts much more energy than glycolysis and the Krebs cycle alone.
ATP-Synthase Presentation
The crystal structure of the c-ring subunits of yeast ATP synthase was determined. It revealed 10 c-subunits forming a symmetrical ring, in contrast to previous models suggesting 12 subunits. The c-ring associates closely with the γ and δ subunits, supporting the idea that it forms part of the rotary motor. Understanding the interaction between the c-ring and other F0 subunits will provide insights into how proton translocation generates rotational motion.
Microfilaments and intermediate filaments
The document summarizes key aspects of the cytoskeleton, focusing on actin filaments. It describes how actin filaments: 1) maintain cell shape and generate force for cell movements through polymerization and depolymerization; 2) integrate cells through attachments to cell adhesions; and 3) produce movements within cells and at the cell membrane through interactions with myosin motor proteins. Accessory proteins regulate actin dynamics by capping, bundling, severing, and crosslinking filaments.
Oxidative phosphorylation
The document provides information on cellular respiration and how it generates ATP through oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondria. It discusses the electron transport chain, made up of protein complexes I-IV in the inner mitochondrial membrane, which establishes a proton gradient by pumping protons from the matrix to the intermembrane space. This proton gradient drives ATP synthase to catalyze the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP. The chemiosmotic theory explains how the potential energy in the proton gradient is used to produce ATP through rotation of the ATP synthase complex.
Extracellular matrix
The document summarizes key components of the extracellular matrix (ECM). It describes three main classes of ECM molecules: structural proteins like collagen and elastin that provide structure, proteoglycans that embed the structural proteins, and adhesive glycoproteins like fibronectin and laminin that attach cells to the matrix. It provides details on the composition, structure and function of proteoglycans, collagen, elastic fibers, reticular fibers and adhesive glycoproteins. It also discusses how defects in ECM synthesis can lead to diseases and conditions like muscular dystrophy.
Cytoskeleton
The document discusses the cytoskeleton of eukaryotic cells. It provides information on the history, structure, and functions of the three main cytoskeletal components: microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments. Microtubules are hollow rods that help with intracellular transport and cell division. Microfilaments are made of actin and involved in cell motility and muscle contraction. Intermediate filaments provide mechanical strength and resist stresses on the cell.
CARBOHYDRATE CHEMISTRY
- Plants convert 100 metric tons of CO2 into carbohydrates each year through photosynthesis.
- Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules and serve important functions like energy storage, structure, and encoding biologic information through oligosaccharide chains.
- Monosaccharides can exist as cyclic or linear structures and take on different configurations that impact their chemical and physical properties. Common techniques like mutarotation, osazone formation, and oxidation reactions are used to characterize carbohydrates.
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Cell respiration haf 1
Cell respiration involves the controlled release of energy through the breakdown of organic molecules like glucose. There are two main types: aerobic respiration, which requires oxygen and produces carbon dioxide and water; and anaerobic respiration, which does not require oxygen. Aerobic respiration occurs in three main stages - glycolysis in the cytoplasm, the link reaction in the mitochondria, and the Krebs cycle and electron transport chain in the mitochondrial matrix. This process generates ATP through redox reactions and chemiosmosis.
Biological oxidation
Cellular respiration is the process by which cells break down glucose and other organic molecules to obtain energy in the form of ATP. It occurs in three main stages: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. During glycolysis, glucose is broken down to form pyruvate in the cytoplasm. In the citric acid cycle, pyruvate enters the mitochondria and is further oxidized, producing NADH, FADH2, and ATP. During oxidative phosphorylation, electrons from NADH and FADH2 are passed through an electron transport chain in the mitochondrial inner membrane. Their energy is used to pump protons out of the matrix, establishing a proton gradient. ATP synthase uses this gradient to
Respiration by Mr. K. S. Sontakke
This document provides information about plant respiration. It begins with defining respiration as an intracellular process of oxidation that breaks down organic substances to produce energy in the form of ATP. The key steps of aerobic respiration are then summarized: glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport system. Glycolysis produces a small amount of ATP through partial oxidation of glucose. The Krebs cycle further oxidizes molecules to generate more ATP. During the electron transport system, ATP is extensively produced through oxidative phosphorylation as electrons are transferred through protein complexes. Anaerobic respiration is also discussed as an energy-producing process that occurs without oxygen.
Respiration biochemistry
This document discusses cellular respiration and the structures and processes involved in mitochondria. It begins with the overall equation for cellular respiration that converts glucose and oxygen to carbon dioxide, water, and ATP. It then describes the four main stages of respiration - glycolysis, the link reaction, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. It discusses the structures of the mitochondrion, including the outer and inner mitochondrial membranes, intermembrane space, cristae, mitochondrial DNA, and matrix. It relates these structures to their functions in oxidative phosphorylation and ATP production.
8.1 cell respiration
Glycolysis converts glucose to pyruvate with a net production of 2 ATP and 2 NADH. Aerobic respiration includes the link reaction, Krebs cycle, electron transport chain, and oxidative phosphorylation. The link reaction forms acetyl-CoA from pyruvate. The Krebs cycle further oxidizes acetyl-CoA to produce NADH, FADH2, and ATP. The electron transport chain uses NADH and FADH2 to pump protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane. ATP synthase uses this proton gradient to phosphorylate ADP during oxidative phosphorylation. The structure of the mitochondrion supports these functions through cristae that increase surface area for the electron transport chain and an intermembrane space
Biomolecules and bioenergetics
This document discusses inhibitors and uncouplers of the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation. It begins by describing the electron transport chain and its components. It then discusses various inhibitors that block electron transport at different sites in the chain, including complexes I-IV. Uncouplers are also described that allow electron transport without phosphorylation by increasing membrane permeability to protons. Physiological uncouplers and their role in thermogenesis are covered. The document concludes with some inherited disorders related to deficiencies in the electron transport chain.
Bioenergetics
Bioenergetics is the study of energy changes in biochemical reactions and biological systems. The laws of thermodynamics govern energy changes. ATP is the primary energy currency in cells. It is produced through oxidative phosphorylation where the energy released from redox reactions is used to pump protons across the mitochondrial inner membrane, creating a proton gradient. ATP synthase uses this proton gradient to phosphorylate ADP, producing ATP. Diseases can result from defects in the electron transport chain or oxidative phosphorylation.
Biological oxidation.pptx
The document discusses biological oxidation and the respiratory chain. It defines oxidation as the addition of oxygen or removal of hydrogen, and reduction as the addition of hydrogen. Redox reactions occur together in cells and liberate energy necessary for cellular functions. The respiratory chain is a series of carriers that transfer electrons from lower to higher redox potentials, ultimately reaching oxygen. This process of oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane and uses the energy released to produce ATP from ADP and phosphate. Inhibitors of the respiratory chain, such as cyanides and carbon monoxide, inhibit oxidation and therefore ATP production. Uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation allow oxidation but prevent phosphorylation, so energy is lost as heat.
Cellular respiration
1) Cellular respiration uses oxygen and food to produce energy in the form of ATP through a series of chemical reactions.
2) There are two types of cellular respiration: aerobic respiration which uses oxygen to produce 38 ATP and anaerobic respiration which produces only 2 ATP without oxygen.
3) Aerobic respiration involves three main stages - glycolysis, the Krebs cycle in the mitochondria, and the electron transport chain - to fully break down glucose and produce large amounts of ATP through chemiosmosis.
Respiration
1) Respiration requires oxygen to fully oxidize nutrients and produce more ATP. It involves glycolysis, the Krebs cycle in mitochondria, and the electron transport chain, where ATP is generated by oxidative phosphorylation.
2) During aerobic respiration, glucose breakdown yields up to 36 ATP molecules, with most ATP generated in the mitochondria. Anaerobic respiration like fermentation only yields 2 ATP per glucose without oxygen.
3) The structure of mitochondria, with its inner and outer membranes, matrix, and cristae, allows for compartmentalization of redox reactions and generation of a proton gradient across the inner membrane for ATP production via chemiosmosis.
Chapter 9 complete
1) The document describes the metabolic pathways that break down glucose to harvest its stored chemical energy.
2) There are three main pathways: glycolysis, which converts glucose to pyruvate and generates a small amount of ATP; cellular respiration, which further breaks down pyruvate through the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain to generate much more ATP; and fermentation, which regenerates NAD+ without oxygen.
3) Through these pathways, the chemical energy from glucose is transferred to ATP via redox reactions and the proton gradient across the mitochondrial membrane during oxidative phosphorylation.
Cellular respiration lecture
The document summarizes cellular respiration, which consists of three main stages: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. Glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvate and generates a small amount of ATP. The citric acid cycle further oxidizes pyruvate and generates more ATP, NADH, and FADH2. During oxidative phosphorylation, electrons from NADH and FADH2 are passed through an electron transport chain where their energy is used to pump protons across a membrane and generate a proton gradient. ATP synthase uses this proton gradient to generate most of the cell's ATP through chemiosmosis.
Oxidative Rancidity in Fats and Oils, Causes and Prevention
Fats are one of the very important component of our diet. But they are highly unstable toward atmospheric oxygen and start producing unpleasant smell. These undesirable compounds generated by degradation of fats are very harmful for our health. They are Carcinogenic in nature.
Chapter 09 Cellular Respiration
1. Cellular respiration involves the breakdown of glucose to extract energy through redox reactions in the mitochondria.
2. Glucose is broken down through glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain. This releases energy that is used to synthesize ATP.
3. Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and yields 2 ATP per glucose. The citric acid cycle and electron transport chain occur in the mitochondria and yield 34 more ATP. Overall, cellular respiration generates around 36 ATP from one glucose molecule.
11 Unit 5 (1).pptx zrggxxxxthtrrthrrrrrr
The document describes the process of aerobic respiration and how ATP is produced. It discusses the four stages of aerobic respiration: glycolysis, the link reaction, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis. In glycolysis, glucose is broken down to pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP. In the link reaction, pyruvate is converted to acetyl-CoA. The Krebs cycle further breaks down acetyl-CoA, producing more ATP and reduced coenzymes. These reduced coenzymes pass electrons to the electron transport chain, powering proton pumps that create a proton gradient. ATP synthase uses this gradient to produce most of the cell's ATP through che
Respiration
To review the process of respiration (aerobic and anaerobic).
Course = Edexcel A2 Biology - Topic 7.1.
Nov. 2 (aerobic vs. anaerobic)
The document is the agenda and lesson plan for a biology class. It discusses aerobic and anaerobic respiration. Aerobic respiration requires oxygen and produces more ATP through glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain. Anaerobic respiration does not require oxygen and only produces 2 ATP through lactic acid or alcohol fermentation.
Specific and general pathway etc(new)2013
This document discusses metabolism and the process of oxidative phosphorylation. It defines metabolism as the series of changes that substances undergo in the body, including being broken down or used to synthesize tissue components. Metabolism involves both catabolic reactions that break down substances and anabolic reactions that build them up. The document then focuses on oxidative phosphorylation, explaining how electrons from nutrients are transferred through complexes in the electron transport chain to ultimately reduce oxygen to water. This process pumps protons out of the mitochondrial matrix, creating a proton gradient that drives ATP synthesis when protons flow back through ATP synthase.
Respiration
Cell respiration is the controlled release of energy from organic compounds like glucose to form ATP. There are two types of respiration: aerobic respiration, which uses oxygen to produce more ATP, and anaerobic respiration, which produces less ATP without oxygen. Aerobic respiration involves glycolysis in the cytoplasm, the Krebs cycle in the mitochondria, and the electron transport chain in the inner mitochondrial membrane, which produces the most ATP.
Respiration
Cell respiration is the controlled release of energy from organic compounds like glucose to form ATP. There are two types of respiration: aerobic respiration, which uses oxygen to produce more ATP, and anaerobic respiration, which produces less ATP without oxygen. Aerobic respiration consists of glycolysis in the cytoplasm, the Krebs cycle in the mitochondria, and the electron transport chain in the inner mitochondrial membrane, which produces the most ATP.
Similar to Uncouplers -1 (20)
Oxidative Rancidity in Fats and Oils, Causes and Prevention
Oxidative Rancidity in Fats and Oils, Causes and Prevention
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247 ketogenic diet and its role in eliminating GGS Medical College/Baba Farid Univ.of Health Sciences.
This document discusses the potential role of ketogenic diets in eliminating or reducing the need for medical treatment in various diseases. It summarizes that ketogenic diets, which are very low in carbohydrates and higher in fats, induce a metabolic state called ketosis. Studies show that ketosis may help treat diseases like epilepsy, obesity, diabetes, and neurological and cardiovascular conditions by improving metabolic pathways and biomarkers. The document reviews the evidence and possible mechanisms for how ketogenic diets may help treat diseases, including reducing appetite and fat accumulation, improving lipid profiles, and reducing insulin resistance. However, more research is still needed to fully understand their long-term effects and therapeutic potential.Dextropropoxyphene pdf.
Dextropropoxyphene is an opioid analgesic used to treat mild to moderate pain. It acts on opioid receptors in the brain and spinal cord to reduce pain perception and increase tolerance. While it can be effective for its approved uses, it also carries risks of dependency and cardiac side effects when taken in high doses or combined with other central nervous system depressants like alcohol. A clinical study was conducted of 60 patients taking dextropropoxyphene to treat pain, depression, or other conditions. Most patients reported significant relief of symptoms with no side effects after 3 days of treatment. However, dextropropoxyphene must be prescribed judiciously due to its risks and potential for abuse.
Dextropropoxyphene pdf.
Dextroprorpoxyphene is an opioid analgesic used to treat mild pain, cough, and muscle cramps. It acts as an agonist at mu-opioid receptors in the brain and gastrointestinal tract, reducing the perception of pain. However, it can cause dependency among recreational users and has a narrow therapeutic index. A clinical study of 60 patients compared the effects of dextroprorpoxyphene to traditional non-opioid drugs for various conditions like pain, depression, and bronchitis. The study aimed to evaluate dextroprorpoxyphene's adverse effects and judicious use.
Importance of milk
This document summarizes the nutritional benefits of milk, particularly buffalo milk. It discusses how milk is an important source of nutrients worldwide. Buffalo milk specifically is highlighted as it is high in proteins, calcium, vitamins, and minerals that are important for bone, heart, and overall health. While milk can be beneficial, it also contains saturated fat, so the document recommends consuming milk in moderation as part of a balanced diet.
Genetic code 3
The document discusses various topics related to the genetic code, including:
1. The genetic code is degenerate, meaning many amino acids are specified by more than one codon. Wobble in the anticodon allows one tRNA to recognize multiple codons.
2. Three rules govern the genetic code: codons are read in groups of three in the 5' to 3' direction without gaps or overlaps.
3. Suppressor mutations can reside in the same gene or a different gene and suppress the effects of mutations by producing functional proteins.
Vitamin c.role in cns.
Vitamin C plays an important role in the nervous system. It reaches high concentrations in neurons due to the SVCT2 transporter. In the brain, vitamin C acts as an antioxidant, helps form myelin sheaths, and protects against toxins. It is also involved in neurotransmitter synthesis and synaptic function. Vitamin C enters the brain through the choroid plexus into the cerebrospinal fluid and then into brain cells, maintaining high concentrations despite low blood levels. It has various roles in brain function and antioxidant defenses in the central nervous system.
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This document discusses the health effects of caffeine consumption from coffee. It finds that moderate daily caffeine intake of up to 400 mg per day is not generally associated with adverse health effects in healthy adults. However, some groups like pregnant women and children may be more sensitive to caffeine and should limit their intake to under 300 mg and 2.5 mg per kg of body weight, respectively, to avoid potential negative effects. While caffeine has some stimulant effects, coffee also contains antioxidants and compounds that may provide health benefits when consumed in moderation.
Replication
1. DNA replication is the process by which a cell makes an identical copy of its DNA during cell division. It is a highly regulated and accurate process that occurs in all living organisms.
2. There are three proposed modes of DNA replication: conservative, semi-conservative, and dispersive. Experiments provided evidence that semi-conservative replication, where each parent strand acts as a template for a new partner strand, is how DNA replication occurs.
3. DNA replication requires several enzymes, including DNA polymerases, to unwind and copy the DNA double helix. In eukaryotes, DNA replication occurs at multiple replication origins along linear chromosomes, while prokaryotes replicate from a single origin on circular chromosomes
Regulation of gene regulation in Eukaryotes
This document discusses regulation of gene expression in eukaryotes. It describes six main levels of control: transcription, RNA processing, mRNA transport, mRNA translation, mRNA degradation, and protein degradation. Key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic gene expression are explained, such as eukaryotes possessing nuclei and more complex regulation. Examples of short-term regulation including the GAL gene pathway in yeast and hormone response are provided.
Glycoproteins
This document provides an introduction to glycobiology and glycoproteins. It defines key terms like glycoproteins, glycosylation, and lectins. It describes the different types of glycoprotein linkages and classes. The roles and functions of glycoproteins are discussed, as well as the sugars commonly found in glycoproteins. Methods for studying glycoproteins like lectins, glycosidases, and mass spectrometry are also summarized.
Motiffs
transcription is the process of synthesis of RNA from DNA.This process is simple in prokaryotes and in eukaryotes certain factors are used.
Prokaryotic vs eukaryotic 3
Replication,transcription,translation complete the central dogma of life.How mRNA,tRNA,rRNA act on ribosomes for protein synthesis.Difference between eukaryotes and prokaryotes
Gene knockout
Gene knock out technology involves replacing or disrupting an existing gene with artificial DNA to study gene function. The first knockout mouse was created in 1989. Knockout mice and microorganisms are commonly used animal models for studying genes in the laboratory. The procedure involves isolating the target gene, engineering a new DNA sequence with a marker gene, introducing this into stem cells via electroporation, and breeding mice with the knocked out gene. Knockout technology allows determining gene functions, creating mouse models of human diseases, and characterizing genetic regulatory regions.
B 12
The liver is a vital organ that performs many essential functions related to digestion, metabolism, immunity, and storage of nutrients. It has an incredible capacity for regeneration. The liver is located in the right upper quadrant of the abdominal cavity and is connected to two large blood vessels - the hepatic artery and portal vein. Radiographic studies like ultrasonography, CT, and MRI can detect changes associated with cirrhosis like nodularity, ascites, and varices, but liver biopsy remains the diagnostic standard.
Calcium & glucagon
This document summarizes research on the role of calcium ions in glucagon secretion by pancreatic alpha cells. It discusses studies showing that omitting extracellular calcium can paradoxically increase glucagon secretion in the presence of glucose or nutrients like arginine. It also notes that calcium plays both an inhibitory and permissive role, as calcium deprivation prevents arginine from stimulating glucagon release at low glucose levels but not high glucose levels. The document reviews how calcium channel blockers like verapamil can increase glucagon output at low glucose but decrease it at high glucose or with arginine stimulation. Finally, it discusses similarities in the effects of calcium omission on the responses of alpha cells to glucose levels or the nutrient 2-ketois
Footprint
This document summarizes two methods for mapping DNA-protein interactions: DNase I footprinting and DMS footprinting. DNase I footprinting involves digesting DNA with DNase I after protein binding, which will be protected by the protein. DMS footprinting uses dimethyl sulfate to modify purines, which will be protected by bound protein. The document also reviews mechanisms of regulation of the lac and tryptophan operons, including activation of lac by cAMP-CAP and attenuation control of tryptophan based on tryptophan levels.
Chromosome
Chromosomes contain an organism's genetic material in the form of DNA. DNA sequences store the information needed to produce proteins, segregate chromosomes during cell division, replicate chromosomes, and compact chromosomes to fit inside cells. Viruses contain either DNA or RNA as their genetic material, which varies in size and structure between viruses. Bacterial chromosomes are typically circular DNA molecules containing several thousand genes, while eukaryotic chromosomes are linear and contain more DNA organized into nucleosomes and higher-order structures to fit inside the cell nucleus.
79035bb0 a6be-4cc1-8f52-b943b8d5af78 (1)
This document discusses various applications of radioactive isotopes. It begins by introducing radioisotope tracers and why they are ideal for tracking materials through complex processes. Only a small number of radioactive atoms are needed to be detectable. It then discusses specific applications such as medical uses of short-lived isotopes to image organs, using tracers to detect leaks, and radioactive dating methods like carbon-14 dating. The document concludes by mentioning radioisotope thermoelectric generators use radioactive decay to generate electricity and have been used to power spacecraft.
32531 32541
Radiation can be ionizing or non-ionizing. Ionizing radiation has enough energy to remove electrons from atoms and molecules and includes alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays, x-rays, and neutrons. Non-ionizing radiation does not have enough energy to ionize but can excite electrons. Radiation is quantified by activity (disintegrations per second), exposure (energy deposited in air), absorbed dose (energy absorbed per mass), and biologically equivalent dose. Different types of ionizing radiation interact differently with tissues depending on their mass and charge. Acute radiation exposure can cause sickness and death while long-term effects include increased cancer risks and organ damage.
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DNA vaccines work by injecting a plasmid containing a gene that codes for a pathogen's antigen. This allows a person's cells to produce the antigen and induce an immune response. DNA vaccines offer advantages over traditional vaccines like eliciting both antibody and T cell responses without using live or killed pathogens. However, DNA vaccines also present risks like genetic integration and autoimmunity that require further research. Current clinical trials show promise for DNA vaccines against viruses, but none have yet been approved for human use.
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“Building and Scaling AI Applications with the Nx AI Manager,” a Presentation...
Cosa hanno in comune un mattoncino Lego e la backdoor XZ?
Cosa hanno in comune un mattoncino Lego e la backdoor XZ?
Energy Efficient Video Encoding for Cloud and Edge Computing Instances
Energy Efficient Video Encoding for Cloud and Edge Computing Instances
Uncouplers -1
- 1. Inhibitors and Uncouplers Any compound that Table 1. Inhibitors of Respiration and Oxidative Phosphorylation compound that Any Site-Specific Target Complex Carbon monoxide Cyanide Sodium Azide Rotenone Antimycin A Amytal IV IV IV I III I Phosphorylation Oligomycin Fo Uncouplers 2,4-Dinitrophenol (DNP) Trifluorocarbonylcyanide Phenylhydrazone (FCCP) Proton gradient Proton gradient stops electron stops electron transport will stop transport will stop respiration…this respiration…this means you stop means you stop breathing breathing Electron transport can Electron transport can be stopped by be stopped by inhibiting ATP inhibiting ATP synthesis synthesis An uncoupler breaks An uncoupler breaks the connection between the connection between ATP synthesis and ATP synthesis and electron transport electron transport
- 2. What is an Uncoupler? Uncouplers break the connection between electron transport and phosphorylation Electron transport is a motor Phosphorylation is the transmission Uncouplers let you put the car in NEUTRAL
- 3. Table 2. Action of Inhibitors on Respiration and Phosphorylation Agent or Condition 1. Inhibit electron transport………. 2. Inhibit phosphorylation……….. 3. Increase proton gradient………. 4. Decrease proton gradient……… 5. Add DNP……………………… 6. Add Oligomycin………………. 7. Add Oligomycin + DNP……… O2 uptake ATP synthesis
- 4. 2,4-dinitrophenol – a proton ionophore OH OH O NO2 NO2 NO2 H+ NO2 Matrix NO2 O NO2 H+ NO2 NO2 Inner Membrane Text p519 Text p519
- 5. Brown Adipose Tissue Uncoupling a proton gradient from FOF1 ATPase Produces Heat! Thermogenin
- 6. Staying Alive Energy Wise • • • • • • • • • We need 2000 Cal/day or 8,360 kJ of energy per day Each ATP gives 30.5 kJ/mole of energy on hydrolysis We need 246 moles of ATP Body has less than 0.1 moles of ATP at any one time We need to make 245.9 moles of ATP Each mole of glucose yields 38 ATPs or 1160 kJ We need 7.2 moles of glucose (1.3 kg or 2.86 pounds) Each mole of stearic acid yields 147 ATPs or 4,484 kJ We need 1.86 moles of stearic acid (0.48 kg or 1.0 pound of fat)
- 7. Control of Oxidative phosphorylation What makes us breathe faster? How does ATP synthesis in the mitochondria adjust to the needs of the cell?
- 8. WHAT IS THE ATP MASS ACTION RATIO? [ATP] [ADP][Pi] = ATP mass action ratio High: Energy sufficient, Signifies high ATP Low: Energy debt, Signifies high ADP or low ATP HIGH Mass Action Ratio: Oxidized cytochrome C [C3+] is favored Cytochrome oxidase is low because of low C2+ O2 uptake low LOW Mass Action Ratio: Reduced cytochrome C [C2+] is favored Cytochrome oxidase stimulated because of high C2+ Oxygen uptake high
- 9. Control of Oxidative Phosphorylation Control of Oxidative Phosphorylation Equilibrium Equilibrium ½NADH + Cyt c (Fe3+) + ADP + Pi ½ NAD+ + Cyt c (Fe2+) + ATP Keq = [NAD+] ½ [NADH] [c2+] [c3+] ∆Go’= 0 ATP [ADP][Pi] [ATP] can control its own production Cytochrome c oxidase step is irreversible and is controlled by reduced cytochrome c (c2+) Because of equilibrium, concentration of c2+ depends on [NADH]/[NAD+] and [ATP]/[ADP][Pi]
- 10. Control of Cytochrome Oxidase (Cox) [c2+] = 3+ [c ] NADH ATP mass action ratio ATP mass action ratio [NADH] ½ [ADP][Pi] Keq [ATP] [NAD+] Mass Action ration NADH [c2+]/[c3+] ADP [c2+]/[c3+] ATP [c2+]/[c3+] equilibrium Stimulates Cox equilibrium Stimulates Cox equilibrium Stimulates Cox equilibrium Suppresses Cox Cytochrome oxidase controls the rate of O22 uptake which Cytochrome oxidase controls the rate of O uptake which means this enzyme determines how rapidly we breathe. means this enzyme determines how rapidly we breathe.
- 11. Oxygen Radicals Partially reduced oxygen species Molecular Oxygen .. ..O O2 O2 .. ..O .. :: O. . Octet Rule .. :: O. . Unpaired electron Unpaired electron = O2 Superoxide Anion
- 12. What is a Free Radical ? Any chemical species with one of more unpaired electrons……. Highly Reactive Powerful Oxidant Short half life (nanoseconds) Can exist freely in the environment
- 13. EXAMPLES OF FREE RADICALS H. Hydrogen atom O2 . Superoxide (oxygen centered) OH . Hydroxyl radical (most reactive) . Nitric Oxide NO
- 14. PRO-OXIDANTS Fe2+ + H2O2 Ascorbic acid + Fe2+ Paraquat Agent Orange Ozone (Generates Free Radicals) Generates hydroxyl radical Generates hydroxyl radical Generates superoxide radical Generates superoxide radical Generates hydroxyl radical
- 15. WHAT ARE ANTIOXIDANTS? WHAT ARE ANTIOXIDANTS? ENZYMES Superoxide dismutase Catalase Peroxidases O2H2O2 R-OOH VITAMINS Vitamin E (tocopherols) Beta Carotene (pro-vitamin A) Vitamin C
- 16. Quiz 1 4 Questions 5 Points
- 17. 1. Other than Fructose-6-PO4 and Fructose-1,6 bisPO4, name another phophate ester of fructose. Fructose 1-PO4 or Fructose 2,6-bisPO4 2. Other than glycerate-1,3 bisPO4, name another high energy intermediate derived from glucose in glycolysis. PEP 3. Name a compound in the Krebs cycle, which when oxidized to CO2 and H2O gives rise to 30 ATPs Succinyl-CoA 4. Name 2 pentoses that are found in the pentose phosphate pathway. Ribose-5-PO4 Ribulose-5-PO4 Xylulose-5-PO4