Mechanisms of enzyme action
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This document summarizes mechanisms of enzyme action. It explains that enzymes lower the activation energy of reactions by stabilizing the transition state. Enzymes bind substrates in an orientation that favors transition state formation. Some mechanisms enzymes use include acid/base catalysis, covalent catalysis, and changing the kinetics of substrate binding and transition state release. Several examples of reaction types and specific enzymes like serine proteases are also outlined.
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3) Allosteric enzymes exhibit sigmoidal kinetics curves rather than traditional hyperbolic curves due to their cooperative binding behavior. Positive allosteric effectors increase enzyme activity while negative effectors decrease it.
Allosteric enzymes
Some of the enzyme possess additional sites, known as allosteric sites besides the active site . Such as know as allosteric enzyme. The allosteric sites are unique place on the enzyme molecules allosteric enzyme have one or more allosteric site.
HISTRY
The term allosteric has been introduced by the two Noble Laureates JACOB AND MONOD to denote an enzyme site different from the active site which non competitively bands molecule other than the substrate and may influence the enzyme activity.
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students session
Students gathered for a session to discuss their studies and plans. Many shared challenges they faced with keeping up with their coursework while balancing other responsibilities. Ideas were exchanged on effective time management strategies and using campus resources to stay on track academically.
Lipid profile
This document provides information about lipid profiles and their normal ranges. It discusses how to collect and process blood specimens for lipid profiles. It then defines the components of a lipid profile including total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, triglycerides, and VLDL cholesterol. For each component, it provides the normal ranges and clinical significance of abnormal levels. It also briefly discusses apolipoprotein B, phospholipids, chylomicrons, and factors that can increase or decrease their levels.
Introduction of biochemistry
Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are the four major macromolecules that make up living things. Carbohydrates include sugars and starches and are used for energy storage. Lipids are composed of fatty acids and glycerol and function in energy storage, protection, and insulation. Proteins contain amino acids and perform a variety of functions including growth, energy production, and pH buffering. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA contain nucleotides and store and transmit genetic information that directs cellular functions. These macromolecules are formed through dehydration synthesis and broken down through hydrolysis.
BIOCHEMISTRY OF LIPIDS
Lipids are a group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, and fat-soluble vitamins. They serve important functions like storing energy, signaling, and as structural components of cell membranes. The document defines lipids and discusses their chemistry, classifications, structures, and biological importance. Key points covered include that lipids are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents, and include triglycerides, fatty acids, and other compounds.
ECOSANOIDS
Eicosanoids are oxygenation products of arachidonic acid (AA), a polyunsaturated fatty acid found in animal and plant cell membranes. AA is released from membranes by phospholipase A2 and metabolized via either the cyclooxygenase pathway to form prostaglandins, prostacyclin, and thromboxanes, or the lipoxygenase pathway to form leukotrienes. These eicosanoids are involved in various physiological functions including inflammation, smooth muscle tone, blood coagulation, reproduction, and GI secretion. Clinical applications of prostaglandins include female and male reproductive health, inflammation and immunity, gastrointestinal, respiratory, musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, ocular health, and cancer.
ROS ANTIOXIDENTS
Aerobic organisms continuously produce reactive free radicals through respiration, metabolism and phagocytosis. Approximately 1-2% of oxygen consumed is converted into superoxide radicals by the respiratory chain, one of the main sources of free radicals in cells. While oxygen is necessary for life, its partial reduction can produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) that damage living systems. The body has multiple antioxidant defenses to combat ROS, including superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase and vitamin C, which help convert ROS into less reactive species and protect biomolecules from oxidative damage.
LIPID CHEMISTRY
Lipids are a group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, and fat-soluble vitamins. They serve important functions like energy storage, signaling, and as structural components of cell membranes. The main classes of lipids are neutral fats/triglycerides (consisting of glycerol and fatty acids), phospholipids, and sterols. Fatty acids can be saturated or unsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acids like omega-3 and omega-6 are essential nutrients. Lipids are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents, and are an important energy source in animals and plants.
Carcinogen
This document discusses carcinogens and cancer. It defines cancer as abnormal cell growth that can invade other tissues and spread to other parts of the body. Carcinogens are substances that can cause cancer. Chemical carcinogens include aromatic hydrocarbons, aromatic amines, and chemicals containing epoxide, organohalogen, and nitroso groups. Carcinogens can damage DNA directly or require metabolic activation. Factors that influence cancer development include dose of exposure, lifestyle factors like smoking, and inherited conditions. Engineering controls, personal protective equipment, hygiene practices, and proper waste disposal can reduce exposure to carcinogens.
Infectious diseases
This document discusses the importance of breastfeeding for infant health and development. It reviews several studies that show breastfeeding reduces the risk of morbidity and mortality from various infectious diseases like diarrhea, otitis media, neonatal sepsis, and respiratory infections. However, in many societies false beliefs interfere with breastfeeding and infants are commonly given prelacteal feeds or mixed feeding instead of being exclusively breastfed. The purpose of the study described is to examine the patterns of infectious diseases in non-breastfed infants compared to breastfed infants admitted to the hospital.
Differences of plasma osmolarity
This document describes a study comparing plasma osmolarity in healthy breastfed and non-breastfed infants. The study included breastfed and non-breastfed infants between 1-6 months of age. Blood samples were collected and analyzed for various biomarkers including glucose, BUN, sodium, potassium, total protein, and albumin levels. Plasma osmolarity was then directly estimated and calculated based on biomarker levels. Results showed breastfed infants had significantly lower glucose, BUN, and plasma osmolarity levels compared to non-breastfed infants. The study concluded breastfeeding provides a lower solute load compared to formula feeding, resulting in lower plasma osmolarity in healthy breastfed infants.
Introdction of metabolism
1. Metabolism refers to the chemical processes that take place in living organisms to sustain life. It includes breaking down nutrients into smaller units and building up complex molecules.
2. Glucose, fats, and proteins are broken down through various pathways to ultimately form acetyl CoA, which enters the citric acid cycle to generate energy in the form of ATP. Less oxygen results in lactic acid formation from glucose.
3. The electron transport chain uses oxygen to convert products of the citric acid cycle into large amounts of ATP, the main energy currency of cells. Fatty acids yield more ATP than glucose due to their carbon-hydrogen bonds.
TRINITY COLLEGE ROBOTIC COMPETITION
The Tufts Robotics Club attended the Trinity College Fire Fighting Robot Contest where they won both the team and individual categories of the Olympiad tournament. This marked the club's fourth win since 2014. They competed in both the mechanical robot competition and trivia-based Olympiad. For the robot competition, Tufts engineered a robot that followed the right wall of the maze and used a fire extinguisher to put out a candle, navigating the maze faster than other teams. In the Olympiad, they demonstrated their strong theoretical engineering knowledge, with sophomore Faizan Muhammad winning individually. The success at this competition aims to attract new recruits to the club.
GLUCOSE TOLERANCE TEST
A glucose tolerance test (GTT) checks how the body metabolizes blood sugar levels over time. There are two main types: an oral GTT where glucose is ingested, and an intravenous GTT where glucose is injected. It is commonly used to screen for prediabetes and diabetes, especially in obese, pregnant, or high-risk individuals. The test involves fasting overnight, then drinking a glucose solution and having blood drawn over 3 hours to analyze the body's insulin response and how quickly glucose is cleared from the blood. Results are interpreted according to WHO criteria, with different glucose level thresholds indicating normal, prediabetes, or diabetes status.
Conference proceedings
This document summarizes a study that compares the performance of two state observers - a sliding mode observer with super-twisting algorithm (STSMO) and a high gain observer (HGO) - for estimating unmeasured states of a quadrotor UAV. The paper designs each observer and then applies a second order sliding mode control technique using the estimated states to control the quadrotor. Simulations show the performance of each observer under the same control scheme and perturbations. The study aims to compare the observers' characteristics for state estimation of the quadrotor system to determine the best observer for real-time applications given system uncertainties and noise.
social media useage
This study examined the usage of social media by students at the FJMU Lahore. A questionnaire was distributed to 415 students to gather data on their social media usage patterns and behaviors. The results found that 95.9% of students used social media daily, with 77% spending 1-2 hours per day on social media. Major purposes of usage were communication (94%) and entertainment (93%), though 46% also used it for studying. Students reported social media could waste time and distract from studies, but could also be useful for sharing medical videos, knowledge and study guidelines. The study concludes social media distracts students and encourages more non-educational activities, so students should utilize it more for academic purposes and limit entertainment usage
DR MUHAMMAD MUSTANSAR
Dr. Muhammad Mustansar has achieved international recognition for his work. He holds a world record and has had his research published in international posters and books. His accomplishments demonstrate expertise in his field at a global level.
STAINING TECHINIQUES
This document provides instructions for several histopathology staining techniques, including:
- Periodic Acid Schiff (PAS) staining for polysaccharides and basement membranes in magenta.
- Gram-Twort modification for staining bacteria in paraffin sections in blue-black (Gram positive) and pink (Gram negative).
- Ziehl-Neelsen technique for staining acid-fast bacilli like Mycobacterium tuberculosis red against a blue background.
It also describes the Periodic Acid Schiff/Alcian Blue dual stain to differentiate acid mucins (blue) from neutral mucins and carbohydrates (magenta). Precise protocols and reagent preparations are provided for accurate histological analysis.
Histopathology
This document provides information on various histopathology staining techniques. It describes the steps for taking paraffin sections to water, dehydrating and clearing sections in xylene, blotting sections dry, and mounting sections. It also details procedures for Ziehl-Neelsen staining for acid-fast bacilli, Gram-Twort staining for bacteria, Periodic acid Schiff staining, Periodic acid Schiff/Alcian blue staining, and the buffered Congo red method for amyloid. Precise reagents and safety notes are included for each technique.
Lactation
This document discusses guidelines for drug use during lactation. It begins by outlining principles from the Quran and Hadith regarding breastfeeding. It then discusses anatomy related to lactation and hormonal regulation. Guidelines for chemotherapy during lactation emphasize using drugs with minimal infant exposure and avoiding unnecessary drugs. Several classes of drugs are discussed, identifying those that are generally safe to use during lactation like beta-blockers, thiazides, ACE inhibitors, warfarin, inhaled asthma medications, and corticosteroids. Drugs that should be avoided include phenobarbital, primodone, and clonazepam. The document also covers stimulants and inhibitors of lactation.
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Mechanisms of enzyme action
- 2. Mechanisms of Enzyme Action
- 3. Activation Energy (AE) – The energy require to reach transition state from ground state. AE barrier must be exceeded for rxn to proceed. Lower AE barrier, the more stable the transition state (TS) The higher [TS], the move likely the rxn will proceed.
- 5. S Ts P
- 7. Transition state = unstable high-energy intermediate Rate of rxn depends on the frequency at which reactants collide and form the TS Reactants must be in the correct orientation and collide with sufficient energy to form TS Bonds are in the process of being formed and broken in TS Short lived (10 –14 to 10 -13 secs)
- 8. • Intermediates are stable. • In rxns w/ intermediates, 2 TS’s are involved. • The slowest step (rate determining) has the highest AE barrier. • Formation of intermediate is the slowest step.
- 10. Enzyme binding of substrates decrease activation energy by increasing the initial ground state (brings reactants into correct orientation, decrease entropy) Need to stabilize TS to lower activation energy barrier.
- 12. ES complex must not be too stable Raising the energy of ES will increase the catalyzed rate •This is accomplished by loss of entropy due to formation of ES and destabilization of ES by •strain •distortion •desolvation
- 15. • Equilibrium between ES <-> TS, enzyme drives equilibrium towards TS • Enzyme binds more tightly to TS than substrate
- 20. Substitutions rxns Bond cleavage rxns Redox rxns Acid base catalysis Covalent catalysis
- 21. Nucleophillic Substitution– Nucleophillic = e- rich Electrophillic = e- poor
- 23. Loose e - = oxidation (LEO) Gain e - = reduction (GER) Central to energy production If something oxidized something must be reduced (reducing agent donates e - to oxidizing agent)
- 24. Oxidations = removal of hydrogen or addition of oxygen or removal of e - In biological systems reducing agent is usually a co-factor (NADH of NADPH)
- 25. Heterolytic vs homolytic cleavage Carbanion formation (retains both e - ) R 3 -C-H R 3 -C: - + H + Carbocation formation (lose both e - ) R 3 -C-H R 3 -C + + H: - Hydride ion Free radical formation (lose single e - ) R 1 -O-O-R 2 R 1 -O* + *O-R 2
- 26. Accelerates rxn by catalytic transfer of a proton Involves AA residues that can accept a proton Can remove proton from –OH, -NH, -CH,
- 28. 20% of all enzymes employ covalent catalysis A-X + B + E <-> BX + E + A A group from a substrate binds covalently to enzyme (A-X + E <-> A + X-E) The intermediate enzyme substrate complex (AX) then donates the group (X) to a second substrate (B) (B + X-E <-> B-X + E)
- 29. Protein Kinases ATP + E + Protein <-> ADP + E + Protein-P 1) A-P-P-P(ATP) + E-OH <-> A-P-P (ADP) + EO-PO 4 - 2) E-O-PO 4 - + Protein-OH <-> E + Protein-OPO 4 -
- 30. The Serine Proteases Trypsin, chymotrypsin, elastase, thrombin, subtilisin, plasmin, TPA • All involve a serine in catalysis - thus the name • Ser is part of a "catalytic triad" of Ser, His, Asp (show over head)
- 31. Serine proteases are homologous, but locations of the three crucial residues differ somewhat Substrate specificity determined by binding pocket