The citric acid cycle (TCA cycle) occurs in the mitochondria and involves a series of reactions that oxidize acetyl groups from acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, releasing carbon dioxide and reducing equivalents (NADH and FADH2) that are used to generate ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. The TCA cycle produces two GTP/ATP molecules per acetyl-CoA molecule oxidized and feeds reduced electron carriers into the electron transport chain to produce additional ATP. It is also an amphibolic pathway that generates precursors for various biosynthetic pathways.
Glycolysis (from glycose, an older term for glucose + -lysis degradation) is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose C6H12O6, into pyruvate, CH3COCOO− + H+. The free energy released in this process is used to form the high-energy molecules ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and NADH (reduced nicotinamide adenine ...
Glycolysis (from glycose, an older term for glucose + -lysis degradation) is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose C6H12O6, into pyruvate, CH3COCOO− + H+. The free energy released in this process is used to form the high-energy molecules ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and NADH (reduced nicotinamide adenine ...
De novo synthesis of fatty acids (Biosynthesis of fatty acids)Ashok Katta
Synthesis of fatty acids in the body. Detailed pathway for de novo synthesis of fatty acids in the body including its energetic and regulation. also cover Multienzyme complex
Gluconeogenesis- Steps, Regulation and clinical significanceNamrata Chhabra
Gluconeogenesis- Thermodynamic barriers, substrates of gluconeogenesis, reciprocal regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis, biological and clinical significance
Complete Set of Metabolism of Carbohydrate in that second chapter, glycolysis.
This presentation covers complete glycolysis pathway with step wise animated reactions and it includes clinical aspects also. This presentation is good for MBBS students.
De novo synthesis of fatty acids (Biosynthesis of fatty acids)Ashok Katta
Synthesis of fatty acids in the body. Detailed pathway for de novo synthesis of fatty acids in the body including its energetic and regulation. also cover Multienzyme complex
Gluconeogenesis- Steps, Regulation and clinical significanceNamrata Chhabra
Gluconeogenesis- Thermodynamic barriers, substrates of gluconeogenesis, reciprocal regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis, biological and clinical significance
Complete Set of Metabolism of Carbohydrate in that second chapter, glycolysis.
This presentation covers complete glycolysis pathway with step wise animated reactions and it includes clinical aspects also. This presentation is good for MBBS students.
1. INTRODUCTION
TCA cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle) or the Krebs cycle is a series of chemical reactions to release stored energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins which oxidizes to CO2 and H2O.
TCA cycle is used by organisms that respire to generate energy, either by anaerobic respiration or aerobic respiration.
Site : Mitochondrial matrix
2.Reactions
1. Condensation of acetyl CoA and oxaloacetate to citric acid.
2a. Dehydration of citric acid to cis-aconitate.
2b. Hydration of cis-aconitate to isocitrate.
3. Oxidative decarboxylation of isocitrate to α-ketoglutarate.
4. Oxidative decarboxylation of α-ketoglutarate to succinyl CoA.
5. Substrate level phosphorylation of succinyl CoA to succinate.
6. Dehydrogenation of succinate to fumarate.
7. Hydration of fumarate to malate.
8. Dehydrogenation of malate to oxaloacetate.
3. Significance of TCA cycle
Complete oxidation of acetyl CoA.
ATP generation.
Final common oxidative pathway.
Integration of major metabolic pathways.
Fat is burned on the wick of carbohydrates.
Excess carbohydrates are converted as neutral fat
No net synthesis of carbohydrates from fat.
Carbon skeleton of amino acids finally enter the TCA cycle.
4. Energetics of TCA Cycle
Oxidation of 3 NADH by ETC coupled with oxidative phosphorylation results in the synthesis of 9 ATP.
FADH2 leads to the formation of 2ATP.
One substrate level phosphorylation.
Thus, a total of 12 ATP are produced from one acetyl CoA.
5. Regulation of TCA Cycle
Three regulatory enzymes
Citrate synthase
Isocitrate dehydrogenase
α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase
Citrate synthase is inhibited by ATP, NADH, acyl CoA & succinyl CoA. Isocitrate dehydrogenase is activated by ADP & inhibited by ATP and NADH α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase is inhibited by succinyl CoA & NADH. Availability of ADP is very important for TCA cycle to proceed.
6. Inhibitors of TCA Cycle
Aconitase is inhibited by fluoro-acetate. This is a non-competitive inhibition.
Alpha ketoglutarate is inhibited by Arsenite. This is also a non-competitive.
Succinate dehydrogenase is inhibited by malonate. This is competitive inhibition.
7. Amphibolic nature of the TCA cycle
TCA cycle is both catabolic & anabolic in nature, called as amphibolic.
Since various compounds enter into or leave from TCA cycle, it is sometimes called as metabolic traffic circle.
8. References
Textbook of Biochemistry-U Satyanarayana
Textbook of Biochemistry- DM Vasudevan
The citric acid cycle – also known as the TCA cycle or the Krebs cycle – is a series of chemical reactions used by all aerobic organisms to release stored energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA
TCA cycle overview
Glycolysis converts glucose to pyruvate
Produces 2 molecules of 2ATP per glucose
Large amounts of potential energy from glucose remains unused
Aerobic oxidation of pyruvate ensures that this energy is not lost
The TCA cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules such as amino acids, fatty acids and carbohydrates
The cycle is also an important source of precursors, not only for the storage forms of fuel, but also for the building blocks of many other molecules such as amino acids, nucleotides bases and sterols
This presentation explains DNA transcription and RNA Processing.
It gives details about prokaryotic DNA transcription and eukaryotic DNA transcription. it also explains post-transcriptional modification both in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
Biological oxidation (part - III) Oxidative PhosphorylationAshok Katta
Biological oxidation (part - III) Oxidative Phosphorylation
- Mechanism of Oxidative Phosphorylation
-- Chemiosmotic theory
-P:O Ratio
Substrate Level Phosphorylation
Shuttle Systems for Oxidation of Extramitochondrial NADH
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
Acute scrotum is a general term referring to an emergency condition affecting the contents or the wall of the scrotum.
There are a number of conditions that present acutely, predominantly with pain and/or swelling
A careful and detailed history and examination, and in some cases, investigations allow differentiation between these diagnoses. A prompt diagnosis is essential as the patient may require urgent surgical intervention
Testicular torsion refers to twisting of the spermatic cord, causing ischaemia of the testicle.
Testicular torsion results from inadequate fixation of the testis to the tunica vaginalis producing ischemia from reduced arterial inflow and venous outflow obstruction.
The prevalence of testicular torsion in adult patients hospitalized with acute scrotal pain is approximately 25 to 50 percent
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
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Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
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New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
Evaluation of antidepressant activity of clitoris ternatea in animals
Citric Acid Cycle
1.
2. Other names-
Krebs cycle,
Tricarboxylic acid cycle
Definition-
It is a series of reactions in mitochondria that oxidize
acetyl residues (as acetyl-CoA) librating reducing
equivalents, which upon oxidation through ETC
generate ATP.
Site-
Mitochondrial matrix
6. Energetic of Glycolysis & Citric Acid Cycle
Energy yield (ATP)/glucose in
glycolysis under aerobic
condition.
Rea. no.1(Hexokinase) -1ATP
Rea. 3 (PFK) -1ATP
Rea. 6 (G 3-PDH) +2.5x2=5
Rea. 7 (BPGK) + 1x2=2
Rea. 10 (PK) + 1x2=2
Total=9-2=7ATP
Energy yield (ATP)/glucose
in TCA.
Isocitrate DH 2.5x2=5ATP
Ketoglutarate DH 2.5x2=5ATP
S. thiokinase 1x2=2ATP
S. DH 1.5x2=3ATP
Malate DH 2.5x2=5ATP
Total=20ATP
Net ATP generation in glycolysis 9-2 =7ATP
ATP generation in PDH 2.5x2=5ATP
ATP generation in Citric acid cycle 20ATP
Net generation of ATP from one glucose mol. 32ATP
7. The primary function is to provide energy (ATP).
It is the final common pathway for the oxidation
of carbohydrate, lipids, and protein via acetyl CoA
or intermediates of the cycle.
Citric acid cycle is an amphibolic process i.e, it
plays role in both oxidative (catabolic) and
synthetic (anabolic) processes. E.g….
Gluconeogenesis
Transamination
Fatty acid synthesis and
Porphyrin synthesis.
Significance of Citric Acid Cycle
9. Certain intermediates of TCA, can be removed from
cycle for the synthesis of many compounds
Succinate for haem (Porphyrin) synthesis.
α-ketoglutarate for glutamate, GABA.
α-ketoglutarate & oxaloacetate for many amino acids.
Because this rate of TCA would expected to decline.
However, intermediates of TCA can be replenished
again by other reactions.
The special enzyme reaction by which the pool of
TCA intermediates can be replenished are called
anaplerotic reactions.
Anaplerotic reactions of Citric Acid Cycle
10. Acetyl-CoA
Anaplerotic
reactions of
Citric Acid Cycle
Oxaloacetate
Citrate
α-Ketoglutarate
Succinyl-CoA
Malate
Fumarate
AspartatePyruvate
Glucogenic
AA
Pyruvate
Valine
isoleucine
methionine
threonine
propionyl CoA
Glutamate