This document provides an overview of amines and amides. It discusses the bonding characteristics of nitrogen in organic compounds and classifies amines as primary, secondary, or tertiary based on the number of hydrocarbon groups bonded to the nitrogen atom. The document also covers amine and amide nomenclature, isomerism, physical properties, basicity, and methods of preparation. Key topics include hydrogen bonding of amines, substituted ammonium ions, amine salt formation through reaction with acids, and interconversion between amines and their salts.
This document provides information about carboxylic acids and carboxylic acid derivatives (esters). It discusses the properties, structures, nomenclature, preparation methods, and reactions of carboxylic acids and esters. Key points include:
- Carboxylic acids contain a carboxyl group consisting of a carbonyl and hydroxyl group attached to the same carbon. They have higher boiling points than similar molecules due to hydrogen bonding.
- Esters are carboxylic acid derivatives where the hydroxyl hydrogen is replaced by an alkyl or aryl group. They have pleasant aromas and are slightly soluble in water.
- Carboxylic acids and esters undergo acid-base reactions, esterification,
This document provides an overview of amines, amides, and amino acids. It discusses the structures, properties, nomenclature and reactions of amines and amides. Amines are classified as primary, secondary or tertiary depending on the number of carbons bonded to nitrogen. Amides are formed from the reaction of amines with carboxylic acids or acid derivatives. Amides have higher boiling points than comparable amines due to hydrogen bonding. Proteins are polymers of amino acids joined by peptide bonds.
Preparation of alkanes class 11-HYDROCARBONS (PART 1)ritik
Alkanes can be prepared through three main methods - catalytic hydrogenation of unsaturated hydrocarbons, reduction of alkyl halides, and decarboxylation of sodium salts of carboxylic acids. Alkanes undergo substitution reactions where one or more hydrogen atoms are replaced. They can also be oxidized through combustion which produces carbon dioxide and water, or through reactions with oxygen or air over catalysts to form alcohols, aldehydes, and other products. Higher alkanes can crack into lower alkanes and alkenes at high temperatures. Conformations of alkanes can be represented using Newman and saw-horse projections.
This document provides an overview of alkanes, including their structure, naming conventions, properties, and sources. It defines hydrocarbons and alkanes. Alkanes contain only single carbon-carbon bonds. Constitutional isomers are discussed. Naming conventions for alkanes include prefixes for carbon numbers and suffixes like -ane for straight chains or naming substituents on branches. Cycloalkanes are named similarly with the prefix cyclo-. Physical properties like boiling points increasing with molecular weight are covered. Alkanes are nonpolar and insoluble in water. Natural sources of hydrocarbons include natural gas and petroleum.
Alkynes are hydrocarbons with a triple bond between two carbon atoms. Common alkynes include acetylene (C2H2), propyne, butyne, pentyne, etc. Their molecular formulas follow the pattern of CnH2n-2. Alkynes are named based on the number of carbons and whether the chain is straight or branched. They are generally reactive due to the triple bond. Alkynes undergo addition, polymerization, substitution, and combustion reactions. They can also form isomers based on chain structure or carbon position.
1. The chapter introduces organic chemistry and the different functional groups that classify organic compounds.
2. It describes IUPAC nomenclature rules for systematically naming organic structures and explains how to identify substituents.
3. The chapter covers different types of isomerism including structural, stereoisomers, and optical isomers that can exist.
This document discusses the nomenclature, structure, properties, preparations, and reactions of carboxylic acids and sulfonic acids. It covers topics such as IUPAC and common naming of carboxylic acids and derivatives, acidity, effects of substituents on acid strength, preparations like oxidation of alcohols and hydrolysis of nitriles, and reactions including decarboxylation, reduction, ester formation, and nucleophilic acyl substitution. The content is organized into sections on nomenclature, preparations, and reactions of carboxylic acids.
Amines, Nomenclature, Physical properties and Chemical by ShababMd. Shabab Mehebub
This document discusses amines, including their classification, nomenclature, physical properties, and chemical reactions. It notes that amines are organic derivatives of ammonia where alkyl, cycloalkyl, or aromatic groups are bonded to the nitrogen atom. Amines are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary based on the number of groups attached to nitrogen. Their nomenclature follows IUPAC or common systems. Amines tend to be gases or liquids with odors, and can hydrogen bond. Their reactivity includes acting as bases or nucleophiles in substitution reactions. Aromatic amines undergo electrophilic substitution, and oxidation or reactions with nitrous acid are also possible.
This document provides information about carboxylic acids and carboxylic acid derivatives (esters). It discusses the properties, structures, nomenclature, preparation methods, and reactions of carboxylic acids and esters. Key points include:
- Carboxylic acids contain a carboxyl group consisting of a carbonyl and hydroxyl group attached to the same carbon. They have higher boiling points than similar molecules due to hydrogen bonding.
- Esters are carboxylic acid derivatives where the hydroxyl hydrogen is replaced by an alkyl or aryl group. They have pleasant aromas and are slightly soluble in water.
- Carboxylic acids and esters undergo acid-base reactions, esterification,
This document provides an overview of amines, amides, and amino acids. It discusses the structures, properties, nomenclature and reactions of amines and amides. Amines are classified as primary, secondary or tertiary depending on the number of carbons bonded to nitrogen. Amides are formed from the reaction of amines with carboxylic acids or acid derivatives. Amides have higher boiling points than comparable amines due to hydrogen bonding. Proteins are polymers of amino acids joined by peptide bonds.
Preparation of alkanes class 11-HYDROCARBONS (PART 1)ritik
Alkanes can be prepared through three main methods - catalytic hydrogenation of unsaturated hydrocarbons, reduction of alkyl halides, and decarboxylation of sodium salts of carboxylic acids. Alkanes undergo substitution reactions where one or more hydrogen atoms are replaced. They can also be oxidized through combustion which produces carbon dioxide and water, or through reactions with oxygen or air over catalysts to form alcohols, aldehydes, and other products. Higher alkanes can crack into lower alkanes and alkenes at high temperatures. Conformations of alkanes can be represented using Newman and saw-horse projections.
This document provides an overview of alkanes, including their structure, naming conventions, properties, and sources. It defines hydrocarbons and alkanes. Alkanes contain only single carbon-carbon bonds. Constitutional isomers are discussed. Naming conventions for alkanes include prefixes for carbon numbers and suffixes like -ane for straight chains or naming substituents on branches. Cycloalkanes are named similarly with the prefix cyclo-. Physical properties like boiling points increasing with molecular weight are covered. Alkanes are nonpolar and insoluble in water. Natural sources of hydrocarbons include natural gas and petroleum.
Alkynes are hydrocarbons with a triple bond between two carbon atoms. Common alkynes include acetylene (C2H2), propyne, butyne, pentyne, etc. Their molecular formulas follow the pattern of CnH2n-2. Alkynes are named based on the number of carbons and whether the chain is straight or branched. They are generally reactive due to the triple bond. Alkynes undergo addition, polymerization, substitution, and combustion reactions. They can also form isomers based on chain structure or carbon position.
1. The chapter introduces organic chemistry and the different functional groups that classify organic compounds.
2. It describes IUPAC nomenclature rules for systematically naming organic structures and explains how to identify substituents.
3. The chapter covers different types of isomerism including structural, stereoisomers, and optical isomers that can exist.
This document discusses the nomenclature, structure, properties, preparations, and reactions of carboxylic acids and sulfonic acids. It covers topics such as IUPAC and common naming of carboxylic acids and derivatives, acidity, effects of substituents on acid strength, preparations like oxidation of alcohols and hydrolysis of nitriles, and reactions including decarboxylation, reduction, ester formation, and nucleophilic acyl substitution. The content is organized into sections on nomenclature, preparations, and reactions of carboxylic acids.
Amines, Nomenclature, Physical properties and Chemical by ShababMd. Shabab Mehebub
This document discusses amines, including their classification, nomenclature, physical properties, and chemical reactions. It notes that amines are organic derivatives of ammonia where alkyl, cycloalkyl, or aromatic groups are bonded to the nitrogen atom. Amines are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary based on the number of groups attached to nitrogen. Their nomenclature follows IUPAC or common systems. Amines tend to be gases or liquids with odors, and can hydrogen bond. Their reactivity includes acting as bases or nucleophiles in substitution reactions. Aromatic amines undergo electrophilic substitution, and oxidation or reactions with nitrous acid are also possible.
This chapter discusses various addition reactions of alkenes, including electrophilic and free radical additions. Electrophilic additions follow Markovnikov's rule, adding the electrophile to the carbon with the greater number of hydrogens. Free radical additions proceed anti-Markovnikov. Other reactions covered include hydroboration-oxidation, oxymercuration-demercuration, halohydrin formation, epoxidation, and hydrogenation. Mechanisms are provided for each reaction type.
The document provides information about amines and amides. It discusses the structures and properties of amines, including their classifications and nomenclature. Primary and secondary amines can form intermolecular hydrogen bonds. Amines react as weak bases and form alkylammonium salts with acids. Amides have high boiling points due to hydrogen bonding between molecules. Amides are named as alkanamides and are prepared from amines through reaction with acid anhydrides or chlorides.
Esters have the general formula RCOOR'. They are formed by the reaction of carboxylic acids with alcohols, which is called esterification. Esters can also be prepared from acyl chlorides or acid anhydrides. Esters undergo various reactions including hydrolysis, aminolysis, reactions with Grignard reagents, and transesterification. Hydrolysis converts esters back into carboxylic acids and alcohols. Transesterification involves exchanging one alkoxy group in an ester for another.
1. Amides are derived from carboxylic acids by replacing the -OH group of the carboxylic acid with an -NH2 group. Primary amides are named by changing the acid name to the acid name amide. Secondary and tertiary amides use uppercase N to designate the alkyl group on nitrogen.
2. Amides can be prepared from carboxylic acids or acid chlorides. From acids, an ammonium salt is formed which dehydrates to the amide upon heating. From acid chlorides, the acid chloride reacts with ammonia.
3. Amides undergo hydrolysis to form carboxylic acids and ammonia/ammonium salts. They also react with nitro
Alkynes are unsaturated hydrocarbons containing a carbon-carbon triple bond. They have the general formula CnH2n-2. The IUPAC system names alkynes by adding the suffix -yne, which indicates the presence of a triple bond. Higher alkynes are named by numbering the longest carbon chain containing the triple bond from the end that gives the lower set of numbers to the triply bonded carbons.
This chapter discusses alkynes, carbon-carbon triple bonds. Alkynes contain two pi bonds and have the general formula CnH2n-2. They can be named using IUPAC nomenclature by changing the -ane ending of the parent alkane to -yne. Alkynes undergo addition reactions like alkenes but also have unique reactions like forming acetylide ions. They can be synthesized through elimination and by reactions of acetylide ions. Oxidation and ozonolysis reactions of alkynes cleave the triple bond.
Nitro compounds can be prepared by several methods including nitration of alkanes, from alkyl halides, and from primary amines. Nitro compounds undergo various reactions including reduction, hydrolysis, halogenation, and reaction with nitrous acid. Amines can be prepared from alkyl halides, oximes, alkyl cyanides, amides, and nitro compounds by reduction. Amines undergo reactions like basic hydrolysis, reactions with nitrous acid to form diazonium salts, acylation, and electrophilic aromatic substitution. Diazonium salts are important intermediates that allow introduction of groups like chlorine, bromine, fluoride, and hydroxyl into aromatic rings. They also undergo azo coupling reactions
Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds. The document introduces organic chemistry, discussing the history and key figures in the field. It describes the properties of carbon that allow it to form many different compounds and categorizes the main types and sources of organic compounds, including naturally occurring, synthetic, and invented compounds. Organic compounds have applications in areas like medicine, pesticides, dyes, plastics, and more.
This document summarizes key information about alkenes (olefins):
1) Alkenes contain carbon-carbon double bonds and are classified as unsaturated hydrocarbons. Common examples include ethylene and propene.
2) Alkenes undergo characteristic reactions such as addition of halogens, hydrogenation to form alkanes, hydration and polymerization. Many of these reactions follow Markovnikov's rule.
3) Alkenes are industrially important as monomers for polymers like polyethylene, polypropylene, PVC and polystyrene. Ethylene and propylene are the largest volume organic chemicals produced.
Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons containing at least one carbon-carbon double bond. They have the general formula CnH2n. Common examples include ethylene (C2H4). Alkenes are prepared through ozonolysis and by following Saytzeff's rule. They have a variety of uses.
This document discusses amines, including their classification, nomenclature, reactions, and uses. Amines are organic compounds derived from ammonia by replacing hydrogen atoms with hydrocarbon groups. They are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary based on the number of alkyl or aryl groups bonded to the nitrogen atom. Amines can also be aliphatic, aromatic, or heterocyclic. Their nomenclature follows IUPAC rules based on the parent alkane. Common reactions include functioning as a base, undergoing alkylation, reaction with nitrous acid to form diazonium salts, conversion to amides, and Hoffman elimination from quaternary hydroxides. Aromatic amines are mainly used to produce d
This document discusses aromatic compounds and benzene chemistry. It begins by introducing aromatic hydrocarbons and noting they have different properties than aliphatic hydrocarbons. Benzene, the simplest aromatic hydrocarbon, is described as having posed problems for early chemists to determine its structure. Kekulé proposed benzene has alternating single and double bonds, but this did not explain its chemical behavior. The resonance structure of benzene is able to account for its reactivity. The document continues discussing nomenclature of aromatic compounds with different numbers of substituents on the benzene ring. Characteristic reactions of benzene like halogenation and nitration are also covered. Phenols are introduced as aromatic compounds containing an -OH group
Esters are compounds derived from acids where a hydroxyl group is replaced by an alkoxy group. They have the functional group R-C(=O)-O-R'. Esters are prepared through the reaction of carboxylic acids with alcohols. Their names indicate the parent alcohol and acid. Esters have lower boiling points than the corresponding acids and alcohols. They undergo hydrolysis and saponification reactions. Common esters include benzocaine which is used as a local anesthetic, aspirin which is used as a pain reliever and fever reducer, and oil of wintergreen which contains methyl salicylate used to treat pain.
The document discusses the classification, nomenclature, properties, preparation, and reactions of amines. Amines are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary depending on the number of alkyl or aryl groups bonded to the nitrogen atom. They are further divided into aliphatic, aromatic, and heterocyclic amines. Amines are named according to IUPAC nomenclature rules. They are weak bases due to resonance stabilization of the conjugate acid. Common methods for preparing amines include reduction of nitriles, amides, imines, and nitro compounds. Amines react with acids to form water-soluble salts and with nitrous acid to undergo proton-transfer and electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions.
This document discusses the key topics in Chapter 4 of the textbook, which covers alcohols, phenols, and ethers. The chapter topics include the bonding characteristics of oxygen atoms in organic compounds, structural characteristics and properties of alcohols, phenols and ethers, as well as their nomenclature, isomerism, common examples, and reactions. Important commonly encountered alcohols like methanol, ethanol, and isopropyl alcohol are described in more detail.
The document summarizes key concepts about arenes and benzene. It discusses early models that could not explain benzene's properties, such as its low reactivity and equal carbon-carbon bond lengths. The delocalized model was proposed, suggesting benzene has delocalized pi electrons rather than alternating double and single bonds. Electrophilic substitution reactions are also summarized, where an electrophile attacks an electron-rich arene. Common reagents include nitric acid, sulfuric acid, chlorine, and bromine.
In organic chemistry, an alkyne is an unsaturated hydrocarbon containing at least one carbon—carbon triple bond. The simplest acyclic alkynes with only one triple bond and no other functional groups form a homologous series with the general chemical formula CₙH₂ₙ−2
a. Yes, cis-trans isomerism is possible. Draw structures.
b. No, cis-trans isomerism is not possible due to symmetry.
c. Yes, cis-trans isomerism is possible. Draw structures.
d. Yes, cis-trans isomerism is possible. Draw structures.
85
Sources of Alkanes and Cycloalkanes
Alkanes and cycloalkanes are found in petroleum
and natural gas. Petroleum is a complex mixture of
hydrocarbons that is formed from the remains of
ancient marine organisms. Natural gas is a gaseous
fossil fuel composed primarily of methane but also
containing significant quantities of ethane
Carboxylic acids contain a carboxyl group (-COOH). They are named according to IUPAC rules with the suffix "oic acid". Esters are produced from a reaction between carboxylic acids and alcohols in the presence of an acid catalyst. The ester name indicates the parent acid and alcohol. Amides are derived from carboxylic acids by replacing the -OH group of the carboxyl with an -NH2 group. They are named by replacing the "oic acid" ending of the parent acid with "amide".
This document discusses common functional groups found in organic compounds. It defines functional groups as atoms or groups of atoms that confer similar chemical properties and reactivity. The document then lists and provides examples of common functional groups including alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, aromatics, haloalkanes, alcohols, ethers, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, esters, amines, and amides. It emphasizes that functional groups are important for classifying organic compounds, identifying sites of chemical reactions, and naming organic compounds.
This chapter discusses various addition reactions of alkenes, including electrophilic and free radical additions. Electrophilic additions follow Markovnikov's rule, adding the electrophile to the carbon with the greater number of hydrogens. Free radical additions proceed anti-Markovnikov. Other reactions covered include hydroboration-oxidation, oxymercuration-demercuration, halohydrin formation, epoxidation, and hydrogenation. Mechanisms are provided for each reaction type.
The document provides information about amines and amides. It discusses the structures and properties of amines, including their classifications and nomenclature. Primary and secondary amines can form intermolecular hydrogen bonds. Amines react as weak bases and form alkylammonium salts with acids. Amides have high boiling points due to hydrogen bonding between molecules. Amides are named as alkanamides and are prepared from amines through reaction with acid anhydrides or chlorides.
Esters have the general formula RCOOR'. They are formed by the reaction of carboxylic acids with alcohols, which is called esterification. Esters can also be prepared from acyl chlorides or acid anhydrides. Esters undergo various reactions including hydrolysis, aminolysis, reactions with Grignard reagents, and transesterification. Hydrolysis converts esters back into carboxylic acids and alcohols. Transesterification involves exchanging one alkoxy group in an ester for another.
1. Amides are derived from carboxylic acids by replacing the -OH group of the carboxylic acid with an -NH2 group. Primary amides are named by changing the acid name to the acid name amide. Secondary and tertiary amides use uppercase N to designate the alkyl group on nitrogen.
2. Amides can be prepared from carboxylic acids or acid chlorides. From acids, an ammonium salt is formed which dehydrates to the amide upon heating. From acid chlorides, the acid chloride reacts with ammonia.
3. Amides undergo hydrolysis to form carboxylic acids and ammonia/ammonium salts. They also react with nitro
Alkynes are unsaturated hydrocarbons containing a carbon-carbon triple bond. They have the general formula CnH2n-2. The IUPAC system names alkynes by adding the suffix -yne, which indicates the presence of a triple bond. Higher alkynes are named by numbering the longest carbon chain containing the triple bond from the end that gives the lower set of numbers to the triply bonded carbons.
This chapter discusses alkynes, carbon-carbon triple bonds. Alkynes contain two pi bonds and have the general formula CnH2n-2. They can be named using IUPAC nomenclature by changing the -ane ending of the parent alkane to -yne. Alkynes undergo addition reactions like alkenes but also have unique reactions like forming acetylide ions. They can be synthesized through elimination and by reactions of acetylide ions. Oxidation and ozonolysis reactions of alkynes cleave the triple bond.
Nitro compounds can be prepared by several methods including nitration of alkanes, from alkyl halides, and from primary amines. Nitro compounds undergo various reactions including reduction, hydrolysis, halogenation, and reaction with nitrous acid. Amines can be prepared from alkyl halides, oximes, alkyl cyanides, amides, and nitro compounds by reduction. Amines undergo reactions like basic hydrolysis, reactions with nitrous acid to form diazonium salts, acylation, and electrophilic aromatic substitution. Diazonium salts are important intermediates that allow introduction of groups like chlorine, bromine, fluoride, and hydroxyl into aromatic rings. They also undergo azo coupling reactions
Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds. The document introduces organic chemistry, discussing the history and key figures in the field. It describes the properties of carbon that allow it to form many different compounds and categorizes the main types and sources of organic compounds, including naturally occurring, synthetic, and invented compounds. Organic compounds have applications in areas like medicine, pesticides, dyes, plastics, and more.
This document summarizes key information about alkenes (olefins):
1) Alkenes contain carbon-carbon double bonds and are classified as unsaturated hydrocarbons. Common examples include ethylene and propene.
2) Alkenes undergo characteristic reactions such as addition of halogens, hydrogenation to form alkanes, hydration and polymerization. Many of these reactions follow Markovnikov's rule.
3) Alkenes are industrially important as monomers for polymers like polyethylene, polypropylene, PVC and polystyrene. Ethylene and propylene are the largest volume organic chemicals produced.
Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons containing at least one carbon-carbon double bond. They have the general formula CnH2n. Common examples include ethylene (C2H4). Alkenes are prepared through ozonolysis and by following Saytzeff's rule. They have a variety of uses.
This document discusses amines, including their classification, nomenclature, reactions, and uses. Amines are organic compounds derived from ammonia by replacing hydrogen atoms with hydrocarbon groups. They are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary based on the number of alkyl or aryl groups bonded to the nitrogen atom. Amines can also be aliphatic, aromatic, or heterocyclic. Their nomenclature follows IUPAC rules based on the parent alkane. Common reactions include functioning as a base, undergoing alkylation, reaction with nitrous acid to form diazonium salts, conversion to amides, and Hoffman elimination from quaternary hydroxides. Aromatic amines are mainly used to produce d
This document discusses aromatic compounds and benzene chemistry. It begins by introducing aromatic hydrocarbons and noting they have different properties than aliphatic hydrocarbons. Benzene, the simplest aromatic hydrocarbon, is described as having posed problems for early chemists to determine its structure. Kekulé proposed benzene has alternating single and double bonds, but this did not explain its chemical behavior. The resonance structure of benzene is able to account for its reactivity. The document continues discussing nomenclature of aromatic compounds with different numbers of substituents on the benzene ring. Characteristic reactions of benzene like halogenation and nitration are also covered. Phenols are introduced as aromatic compounds containing an -OH group
Esters are compounds derived from acids where a hydroxyl group is replaced by an alkoxy group. They have the functional group R-C(=O)-O-R'. Esters are prepared through the reaction of carboxylic acids with alcohols. Their names indicate the parent alcohol and acid. Esters have lower boiling points than the corresponding acids and alcohols. They undergo hydrolysis and saponification reactions. Common esters include benzocaine which is used as a local anesthetic, aspirin which is used as a pain reliever and fever reducer, and oil of wintergreen which contains methyl salicylate used to treat pain.
The document discusses the classification, nomenclature, properties, preparation, and reactions of amines. Amines are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary depending on the number of alkyl or aryl groups bonded to the nitrogen atom. They are further divided into aliphatic, aromatic, and heterocyclic amines. Amines are named according to IUPAC nomenclature rules. They are weak bases due to resonance stabilization of the conjugate acid. Common methods for preparing amines include reduction of nitriles, amides, imines, and nitro compounds. Amines react with acids to form water-soluble salts and with nitrous acid to undergo proton-transfer and electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions.
This document discusses the key topics in Chapter 4 of the textbook, which covers alcohols, phenols, and ethers. The chapter topics include the bonding characteristics of oxygen atoms in organic compounds, structural characteristics and properties of alcohols, phenols and ethers, as well as their nomenclature, isomerism, common examples, and reactions. Important commonly encountered alcohols like methanol, ethanol, and isopropyl alcohol are described in more detail.
The document summarizes key concepts about arenes and benzene. It discusses early models that could not explain benzene's properties, such as its low reactivity and equal carbon-carbon bond lengths. The delocalized model was proposed, suggesting benzene has delocalized pi electrons rather than alternating double and single bonds. Electrophilic substitution reactions are also summarized, where an electrophile attacks an electron-rich arene. Common reagents include nitric acid, sulfuric acid, chlorine, and bromine.
In organic chemistry, an alkyne is an unsaturated hydrocarbon containing at least one carbon—carbon triple bond. The simplest acyclic alkynes with only one triple bond and no other functional groups form a homologous series with the general chemical formula CₙH₂ₙ−2
a. Yes, cis-trans isomerism is possible. Draw structures.
b. No, cis-trans isomerism is not possible due to symmetry.
c. Yes, cis-trans isomerism is possible. Draw structures.
d. Yes, cis-trans isomerism is possible. Draw structures.
85
Sources of Alkanes and Cycloalkanes
Alkanes and cycloalkanes are found in petroleum
and natural gas. Petroleum is a complex mixture of
hydrocarbons that is formed from the remains of
ancient marine organisms. Natural gas is a gaseous
fossil fuel composed primarily of methane but also
containing significant quantities of ethane
Carboxylic acids contain a carboxyl group (-COOH). They are named according to IUPAC rules with the suffix "oic acid". Esters are produced from a reaction between carboxylic acids and alcohols in the presence of an acid catalyst. The ester name indicates the parent acid and alcohol. Amides are derived from carboxylic acids by replacing the -OH group of the carboxyl with an -NH2 group. They are named by replacing the "oic acid" ending of the parent acid with "amide".
This document discusses common functional groups found in organic compounds. It defines functional groups as atoms or groups of atoms that confer similar chemical properties and reactivity. The document then lists and provides examples of common functional groups including alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, aromatics, haloalkanes, alcohols, ethers, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, esters, amines, and amides. It emphasizes that functional groups are important for classifying organic compounds, identifying sites of chemical reactions, and naming organic compounds.
1. This chapter discusses five classes of organic compounds derived from carboxylic acids: acid chlorides, acid anhydrides, esters, amides, and nitriles.
2. These derivatives are formed by replacing functional groups on the carboxyl group of carboxylic acids, such as replacing the hydroxyl group with a chlorine in acid chlorides or a double bonded oxygen in anhydrides.
3. The compounds are named based on the parent carboxylic acid and the functional group replacing the hydroxyl group, such as naming benzoic anhydride from benzoic acid or ethyl ethanoate from ethanoic acid.
This very short document does not contain enough substantive information to summarize in 3 sentences or less. It consists of only two fragments that do not convey a clear meaning or message on their own.
This document describes the chemical reaction that produces soap.
The reaction involves treating oils or fats with an aqueous alkali like sodium or potassium hydroxide, known as saponification. This produces soap and glycerin as products from the reactives of oils and alkali. Precautions like wearing gloves and ensuring proper ventilation are recommended when doing the reaction.
The document discusses various types of carboxylic acids including monocarboxylic acids containing one carboxyl group, dicarboxylic acids containing two carboxyl groups, and tricarboxylic acids containing three carboxyl groups. Examples are provided for each type. The document also discusses several saturated fatty acids found in nature including lauric acid, myristic acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid, and linoleic acid. Their chemical formulas, structures, sources, and uses are described.
Anhydrous ammonia is a colorless gas used as a fertilizer that can cause severe burns and blindness if exposed to skin or eyes. It is attracted to moisture and becomes a liquid under pressure. Proper safety equipment and regularly inspecting hoses and valves are necessary to prevent injuries from equipment failures or leaks, which are common causes of exposure. Immediate flushing of exposed areas with water is the recommended first aid treatment for exposure to anhydrous ammonia.
Cave-ins pose the greatest risk in excavations. Other hazards include asphyxiation, toxic fumes, fire, and equipment collisions. Proper protective systems like sloping, shielding, and shoring can prevent cave-ins and protect workers. A competent person must inspect excavations daily for hazards and ensure protective systems are properly installed.
Ammonia Safety created by Salim SolankiSalim Solanki
This document provides information on the properties, applications, hazards and safety precautions for working with ammonia. Some key points:
- Ammonia is used as a refrigerant, to make fertilizers and explosives, and to extract metals from ores.
- It is colorless as a liquid but forms white clouds when vaporized. It has a low flash point and is lighter than air.
- Exposure to ammonia can cause respiratory and eye irritation. Concentrations above 500 ppm are not considered serious for one hour exposure, while levels over 1700 ppm could be fatal after half an hour.
- Safety precautions for working with ammonia lines include isolating the work area,
Anhydrous ammonia is a colorless gas that is stored as a liquid under pressure. It is commonly used as an agricultural fertilizer. When the pressure is released, the liquid vaporizes into a pungent smelling gas. Exposure to ammonia can cause injuries to the eyes, throat, and lungs. It is a polar molecule that readily dissolves in water. The Haber-Bosch process allows industrial fixation of nitrogen from air into ammonia through use of high pressures and temperatures with an iron catalyst. This process is very energy intensive. Fritz Haber's development of this process was important for increasing food production but also enabled Germany to produce explosives and chemical weapons during WWI.
Chemistry O level Syllabus:
Chapter on AMMONIA
Prepared by: Faiz Abdullah
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21.2 - Part 2 Reactions of Carboxylic Acid Derivatives - Wade 7thNattawut Huayyai
This chapter discusses nucleophilic acyl substitution reactions of carboxylic acid derivatives. It describes the addition-elimination mechanism and how more reactive derivatives can be converted to less reactive ones. Specific reactions covered include converting acid chlorides to anhydrides, esters, or amides. It also discusses hydrolysis, reduction, reactions of esters, amides, and nitriles, and how these transformations are important in organic synthesis and biochemical processes.
Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids that help water dissolve and remove dirt. Detergents are similar but are more effective cleaning agents as they do not form precipitates in hard water like soaps do. Soapless soaps, while different from normal soaps, perform similar cleaning functions through chemical rather than natural reactions, with advantages of being usable in any water type but disadvantages of being less environmentally friendly than traditional soaps.
The document discusses ammonia safety precautions for power plant chemistry. It provides three key points:
1) Ammonia and other neutralizing amines are injected into feed water to volatilize with steam and neutralize CO2 in condensate lines, raising the pH to inhibit corrosion.
2) Ammonia is an effective neutralizer but cannot be used with low-pressure copper systems, which instead control pH through monitoring.
3) Properties, uses, and hazards of ammonia are described, including its industrial production via the Haber process at high temperatures and pressures using an iron catalyst.
Corrosion Barriers or Mitigation presentationEmeka Nwafor
This document discusses corrosion barriers and assurance for a seawater injection system. It lists various types of corrosion threats and prevention methods. Corrosion barriers include material selection, application of chemicals like inhibitors and oxygen scavengers, pipeline design considerations, and coatings. Assurance methods involve monitoring corrosion rates, oxygen, bacteria, bisulfite and chlorine levels, and total suspended solids to ensure corrosion barriers remain effective.
Esters are polar molecules that can participate in hydrogen bonding and dipole-dipole interactions. They are more polar than ethers but less polar than alcohols. Esters have lower melting and boiling points than the corresponding acids and amides. They undergo hydrolysis under basic conditions and are relatively resistant to reduction compared to ketones and aldehydes. Esters are commonly used as solvents, plasticizers, and food flavorings.
The document proposes setting up a new ice plant in Bahawalpur, Pakistan with a capacity of 50 tons per day. It discusses the history of ice making technology, machinery and equipment requirements including generators, transformers and water boreholes. The plant will produce ice blocks weighing 130-150kg each. It analyzes the local market demand, target customers, distribution channels and provides a financial plan and implementation schedule for the project.
This chapter discusses carboxylic acids and their derivatives. It defines carboxylic acids as containing a carbonyl group bonded to a hydroxyl group. Carboxylic acids can be aliphatic or aromatic. Common and IUPAC naming methods are introduced. The chapter discusses the structures, properties, acidity, and reactions of carboxylic acids including esterification, acid chlorides, anhydrides, and amides. Spectroscopic data of carboxylic acids is also summarized.
This document provides an overview of the key components and processes in an ammonia plant. It describes the desulphurization process to remove sulfur from natural gas and naphtha feeds. It then explains the multi-step reforming process used to produce hydrogen and other gases from these feeds, including pre-reforming, primary reforming, and secondary reforming. The shift reaction process is also summarized, which converts carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide. Overall temperatures, pressures, catalysts and reactions for each major unit are outlined to concisely explain the production of ammonia.
This document discusses amines, which are carbon-hydrogen-nitrogen compounds that occur widely in living organisms. Amines are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary based on how many hydrocarbon groups are bonded to the nitrogen atom. Primary amines have one hydrocarbon group and two hydrogen atoms bonded to nitrogen. Secondary amines have two hydrocarbon groups and one hydrogen bonded to nitrogen. Tertiary amines have three hydrocarbon groups bonded to nitrogen. Amines behave as weak bases and react with acids to form amine salts. Heterocyclic amines contain nitrogen atoms in aromatic or nonaromatic ring structures. Isomerism in amines can arise from different carbon chain arrangements or positioning of the nitrogen atom.
This document discusses amines, which are carbon-hydrogen-nitrogen compounds that occur widely in living organisms. Amines are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary based on how many hydrocarbon groups are bonded to the nitrogen atom. Primary amines have one hydrocarbon group and two hydrogen atoms bonded to nitrogen. Secondary amines have two hydrocarbon groups and one hydrogen bonded to nitrogen. Tertiary amines have three hydrocarbon groups bonded to nitrogen. Amines behave as weak bases and react with acids to form amine salts. Heterocyclic amines contain nitrogen atoms in aromatic or nonaromatic ring structures. Isomerism in amines can arise from different carbon chain arrangements or positioning of the nitrogen atom.
Organic chemistry (Amines), Sharda Public School, Almora U.K.Dr. Tanuja Nautiyal
This document discusses amines, which are organic compounds derived from ammonia where an alkyl, cycloalkyl, or aryl group is bonded to the nitrogen atom. Amines are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary based on how many hydrocarbon groups are bonded to the nitrogen. Primary amines have one hydrocarbon group and two hydrogens, secondary have two hydrocarbon groups and one hydrogen, and tertiary have three hydrocarbon groups. The document discusses the properties, reactions, preparation methods, and nomenclature of amines.
This document provides an overview of amines, including:
- Amines are organic derivatives of ammonia where hydrogen atoms are replaced by alkyl or aryl groups.
- Amines are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary based on the number of groups attached to the nitrogen atom.
- The lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom makes amines basic and nucleophilic. Tertiary amines are the most basic due to stabilization of the conjugate acid by alkyl groups.
- Common reactions of amines include salt formation, amide formation, and reactions with acid chlorides and anhydrides to form amides. Reduction of nitriles and nitrobenzenes provides methods to synt
This document discusses the classification, nomenclature, properties, preparation and reactions of amines. Amines are classified as primary, secondary or tertiary based on the number of alkyl or aryl groups bonded to the nitrogen atom. Common tests to identify amines include solubility in acid, reaction with litmus, nitrous acid, and formation of azo dyes or sulfonamides. Primary amines react with nitrous acid to form nitrogen gas or diazonium salts, secondary amines form nitrosamines, and tertiary amines form nitrite salts. Aromatic amines are named as derivatives of aniline and react similarly in identification tests.
1) Aromatic amines are organic compounds containing an amine (-NH2) group attached directly to an aromatic ring. They are less basic than aliphatic amines due to resonance stabilization of the aromatic ring, which decreases the availability of the nitrogen lone pair for protonation.
2) The basicity of amines is affected by factors like inductive effects, steric hindrance, and hydrogen bonding. Secondary amines are the strongest bases due to favorable hydrogen bonding interactions.
3) Aromatic amines like aniline are weaker bases than aliphatic amines like cyclohexylamine because the nitrogen lone pair is delocalized into the aromatic ring, making it less available for proton
This document discusses the structure and properties of amines. It begins by defining amines as carbon-hydrogen-nitrogen compounds that are commonly found in living organisms. It then discusses the bonding characteristics of nitrogen atoms in organic compounds and how this relates to the structures of primary, secondary, and tertiary amines. The document also covers the physical properties, basicity, and reactions of amines, including the formation of amine salts. It concludes by discussing heterocyclic and isomeric amines.
This document discusses amines, which are organic compounds derived from ammonia by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms with alkyl or aryl groups. Amines can be classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary depending on the number of hydrogen atoms replaced. They have important commercial uses as intermediates in making medicines and fibers. Diazonium salts are also discussed as intermediates used to synthesize aromatic compounds like dyes.
This document discusses the classifications and basicity of amines. It describes four classifications of amines: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. The basicity of amines is due to their nitrogen atom possessing an available lone pair of electrons. In gas phase, electron donating groups increase basicity while electron withdrawing groups decrease it. In aqueous solution, the order of basicity is secondary > primary > tertiary > ammonia. Aromatic amines are weaker bases than aliphatic amines because the lone pair on nitrogen in aromatic amines is delocalized into the aromatic ring. Any group ortho to an aromatic amine will decrease its basicity due to steric effects.
An aromatic amine is an organic compound consisting of an aromatic ring attached to an amine. It is a broad class of compounds that encompasses anilines, but also many more complex aromatic rings and many amine substituents beyond NH2. Such compounds occur widely.Aromatic Amines
Reactivity of Amines
Reaction of Amines
Basicity of Amines
Amines are organic compounds derived from ammonia by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms with alkyl or aryl groups. They can be classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary based on the number of hydrogen atoms replaced. Amines have basic properties due to the lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom. Common methods for synthesizing amines include reduction of nitro compounds, ammonolysis of alkyl halides, and reduction of nitriles or amides. Amines undergo electrophilic substitution and acylation reactions. Primary amines react with nitrous acid to form diazonium salts.
Amines are organic compounds derived from ammonia by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms with alkyl or aryl groups. They can be classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary based on the number of hydrogen atoms replaced. Amines have basic properties due to the lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom. Primary and secondary amines can form hydrogen bonds and have higher boiling points than tertiary amines. Amines can be prepared through reduction of nitro compounds, ammonolysis of alkyl halides, reduction of nitriles or amides, and other reactions. They undergo nucleophilic substitution and other reactions due to the lone pair on nitrogen.
This document discusses amines, which are organic compounds derived from ammonia that contain a basic nitrogen atom. It describes different types of amines including primary, secondary, tertiary, aliphatic, aromatic, and cyclic amines. Methods for synthesizing amines are also summarized, including nucleophilic substitution reactions, reduction of nitrogen-containing functional groups, reductive amination, and the Hoffmann elimination reaction. Specific examples of important amines and their synthesis are provided.
This document discusses aromatic amines and their properties and synthesis. It defines aromatic amines as those where nitrogen is attached directly to an aromatic ring. It notes that aromatic amines are less basic than aliphatic amines due to resonance stabilization of the aromatic ring. Several methods for synthesizing aromatic amines are described, including reduction of nitrobenzene, reductive amination of carbonyl groups, and reduction of nitriles. The Hofmann rearrangement, which converts a primary amide to a primary amine, is also summarized.
This document discusses the structures, nomenclature, properties and reactions of amines. It defines amines as derivatives of ammonia where one or more hydrogens have been replaced by alkyl or aryl groups. It discusses the IUPAC nomenclature system for amines and describes several methods for preparing primary, secondary and tertiary amines, including alkylation of ammonia, reduction of nitroalkanes, and reduction of nitriles. The document also summarizes the physical and chemical properties of amines such as their higher boiling points, solubility, and basic character. It describes several characteristic reactions of amines including alkylation, reaction with aldehydes and ketones to form imines, and reaction with nitrous
Amines are organic compounds derived from ammonia by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms with alkyl or aryl groups. They can be classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary depending on the number of alkyl/aryl groups attached to the nitrogen atom. Aromatic amines have an amine group directly attached to an aromatic ring. Amines can act as bases by accepting protons. Their basicity depends on factors like substitution, with electron-donating groups increasing basicity. Amines undergo reactions like salt formation with acids, nitrosoamine formation with nitrous acid, amide formation with acyl chlorides/anhydrides, and halogenation of aromatic amines.
Amines are organic compounds derived from ammonia by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms with alkyl or aryl groups. There are three types of amines based on the number of alkyl/aryl groups attached to the nitrogen atom: primary, secondary, and tertiary amines. Amines can be prepared through various methods like reduction of nitroalkanes, nitriles, amides, oximes; reaction of primary amines with alkyl halides; and reaction of alkyl halides with ammonia. Their structures, nomenclature, physical properties and chemical reactions are discussed in the document. Amines undergo reactions like salt formation, acylation, reaction with nitrous acid, sulfonylation, and carbylamine reaction due to
Amines are organic compounds derived from ammonia, with one or more hydrogen atoms replaced by alkyl or aromatic groups. They are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary based on the number of organic groups attached to the nitrogen atom. Amines react as weak bases and their reactions include neutralization by acids to form alkylammonium salts. Amines have many applications, including use in dyes, drugs, gas treatment, and as catalysts in polyurethane foams. Some solvents used for carbon capture have low biodegradability, so it is important to evaluate the environmental impacts of amines.
The document discusses lipid metabolism and the relationships between lipid and carbohydrate metabolism. It covers the digestion and absorption of lipids in the stomach and small intestine. Lipids are broken down into fatty acids and monoacylglycerols by pancreatic lipases. These products are combined into micelles to be absorbed. The fatty acids and glycerol are further metabolized. Glycerol is converted to dihydroxyacetone phosphate and fatty acids undergo beta-oxidation in the mitochondria to produce acetyl-CoA. Acetyl-CoA contributes to ATP production through the citric acid cycle. Ketone bodies are produced when acetyl-CoA levels are high due to fatty acid breakdown. Ketone bodies can be used for
The document discusses carbohydrate metabolism, including the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates in the mouth, small intestine, and intestinal cells. The three major monosaccharides absorbed are glucose, galactose, and fructose. Glycolysis and its regulation are described, along with the fates of pyruvate including conversion to acetyl CoA and lactate or ethanol fermentation. Glycogen synthesis and degradation, gluconeogenesis, the Cori cycle, and pentose phosphate pathway are summarized. Hormonal control of carbohydrate metabolism by insulin, glucagon, and epinephrine is covered.
1. Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria use sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to produce oxygen and energy in the form of glucose.
2. The light reactions use energy from sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into oxygen and energy carriers (ATP and NADPH). The dark reactions use these energy carriers to convert the energy from the light reactions into glucose from carbon dioxide.
3. Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll which absorbs sunlight and drives the light reactions of photosynthesis to produce ATP and NADPH. The dark reactions then use these products to fix carbon and produce glucose in the stroma of the chloroplast.
1. There are three sources that contribute amino acids to the body's amino acid pool: dietary protein, protein turnover, and biosynthesis of amino acids in the liver.
2. Amino acids from the pool are used for protein synthesis, synthesis of other nitrogen-containing compounds, synthesis of nonessential amino acids, and production of energy.
3. Transamination and oxidative deamination reactions break down amino acids, with transamination exchanging amino and keto groups and oxidative deamination converting amino acids to keto acids and releasing ammonium ions. The urea cycle then converts ammonium ions and carbon dioxide into urea for excretion.
Chapter 6 Carboxylic acids Ssters and other derivativesGizel Santiago
This document provides an overview of carboxylic acids and their derivatives. It discusses the structure of carboxylic acids and various derivatives such as esters, acid chlorides, and acid anhydrides. The document outlines IUPAC and common naming systems for carboxylic acids including monocarboxylic, dicarboxylic, and aromatic acids. It also discusses polyfunctional carboxylic acids that contain additional functional groups like unsaturated, hydroxyl, and keto groups. Common examples of polyfunctional acids are acrylic acid, maleic acid, tartaric acid, and lactic acid.
This document discusses aldehydes and ketones. It defines aldehydes as carbonyl compounds containing at least one hydrogen atom bonded to the carbonyl carbon, while ketones contain two carbon groups bonded to the carbonyl carbon. The document covers nomenclature rules for naming aldehydes and ketones based on IUPAC conventions, examples of common aldehydes and ketones, and different types of isomerism exhibited by these compound classes. Physical and chemical properties of aldehydes and ketones are also outlined.
This document provides an overview of unsaturated hydrocarbons, specifically focusing on alkenes. It discusses the characteristics, nomenclature, structural formulas, isomerism, naturally occurring forms, physical properties and chemical reactions of alkenes. Key topics covered include the IUPAC naming rules for alkenes and cycloalkenes, the different types of isomerism that can occur in alkenes, common naturally occurring alkenes like pheromones and terpenes, and common chemical reactions like addition reactions, hydrogenation, and halogenation.
Immersive Learning That Works: Research Grounding and Paths ForwardLeonel Morgado
We will metaverse into the essence of immersive learning, into its three dimensions and conceptual models. This approach encompasses elements from teaching methodologies to social involvement, through organizational concerns and technologies. Challenging the perception of learning as knowledge transfer, we introduce a 'Uses, Practices & Strategies' model operationalized by the 'Immersive Learning Brain' and ‘Immersion Cube’ frameworks. This approach offers a comprehensive guide through the intricacies of immersive educational experiences and spotlighting research frontiers, along the immersion dimensions of system, narrative, and agency. Our discourse extends to stakeholders beyond the academic sphere, addressing the interests of technologists, instructional designers, and policymakers. We span various contexts, from formal education to organizational transformation to the new horizon of an AI-pervasive society. This keynote aims to unite the iLRN community in a collaborative journey towards a future where immersive learning research and practice coalesce, paving the way for innovative educational research and practice landscapes.
Authoring a personal GPT for your research and practice: How we created the Q...Leonel Morgado
Thematic analysis in qualitative research is a time-consuming and systematic task, typically done using teams. Team members must ground their activities on common understandings of the major concepts underlying the thematic analysis, and define criteria for its development. However, conceptual misunderstandings, equivocations, and lack of adherence to criteria are challenges to the quality and speed of this process. Given the distributed and uncertain nature of this process, we wondered if the tasks in thematic analysis could be supported by readily available artificial intelligence chatbots. Our early efforts point to potential benefits: not just saving time in the coding process but better adherence to criteria and grounding, by increasing triangulation between humans and artificial intelligence. This tutorial will provide a description and demonstration of the process we followed, as two academic researchers, to develop a custom ChatGPT to assist with qualitative coding in the thematic data analysis process of immersive learning accounts in a survey of the academic literature: QUAL-E Immersive Learning Thematic Analysis Helper. In the hands-on time, participants will try out QUAL-E and develop their ideas for their own qualitative coding ChatGPT. Participants that have the paid ChatGPT Plus subscription can create a draft of their assistants. The organizers will provide course materials and slide deck that participants will be able to utilize to continue development of their custom GPT. The paid subscription to ChatGPT Plus is not required to participate in this workshop, just for trying out personal GPTs during it.
Mending Clothing to Support Sustainable Fashion_CIMaR 2024.pdfSelcen Ozturkcan
Ozturkcan, S., Berndt, A., & Angelakis, A. (2024). Mending clothing to support sustainable fashion. Presented at the 31st Annual Conference by the Consortium for International Marketing Research (CIMaR), 10-13 Jun 2024, University of Gävle, Sweden.
The binding of cosmological structures by massless topological defectsSérgio Sacani
Assuming spherical symmetry and weak field, it is shown that if one solves the Poisson equation or the Einstein field
equations sourced by a topological defect, i.e. a singularity of a very specific form, the result is a localized gravitational
field capable of driving flat rotation (i.e. Keplerian circular orbits at a constant speed for all radii) of test masses on a thin
spherical shell without any underlying mass. Moreover, a large-scale structure which exploits this solution by assembling
concentrically a number of such topological defects can establish a flat stellar or galactic rotation curve, and can also deflect
light in the same manner as an equipotential (isothermal) sphere. Thus, the need for dark matter or modified gravity theory is
mitigated, at least in part.
The technology uses reclaimed CO₂ as the dyeing medium in a closed loop process. When pressurized, CO₂ becomes supercritical (SC-CO₂). In this state CO₂ has a very high solvent power, allowing the dye to dissolve easily.
EWOCS-I: The catalog of X-ray sources in Westerlund 1 from the Extended Weste...Sérgio Sacani
Context. With a mass exceeding several 104 M⊙ and a rich and dense population of massive stars, supermassive young star clusters
represent the most massive star-forming environment that is dominated by the feedback from massive stars and gravitational interactions
among stars.
Aims. In this paper we present the Extended Westerlund 1 and 2 Open Clusters Survey (EWOCS) project, which aims to investigate
the influence of the starburst environment on the formation of stars and planets, and on the evolution of both low and high mass stars.
The primary targets of this project are Westerlund 1 and 2, the closest supermassive star clusters to the Sun.
Methods. The project is based primarily on recent observations conducted with the Chandra and JWST observatories. Specifically,
the Chandra survey of Westerlund 1 consists of 36 new ACIS-I observations, nearly co-pointed, for a total exposure time of 1 Msec.
Additionally, we included 8 archival Chandra/ACIS-S observations. This paper presents the resulting catalog of X-ray sources within
and around Westerlund 1. Sources were detected by combining various existing methods, and photon extraction and source validation
were carried out using the ACIS-Extract software.
Results. The EWOCS X-ray catalog comprises 5963 validated sources out of the 9420 initially provided to ACIS-Extract, reaching a
photon flux threshold of approximately 2 × 10−8 photons cm−2
s
−1
. The X-ray sources exhibit a highly concentrated spatial distribution,
with 1075 sources located within the central 1 arcmin. We have successfully detected X-ray emissions from 126 out of the 166 known
massive stars of the cluster, and we have collected over 71 000 photons from the magnetar CXO J164710.20-455217.
Travis Hills of MN is Making Clean Water Accessible to All Through High Flux ...Travis Hills MN
By harnessing the power of High Flux Vacuum Membrane Distillation, Travis Hills from MN envisions a future where clean and safe drinking water is accessible to all, regardless of geographical location or economic status.
PPT on Direct Seeded Rice presented at the three-day 'Training and Validation Workshop on Modules of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) Technologies in South Asia' workshop on April 22, 2024.
When I was asked to give a companion lecture in support of ‘The Philosophy of Science’ (https://shorturl.at/4pUXz) I decided not to walk through the detail of the many methodologies in order of use. Instead, I chose to employ a long standing, and ongoing, scientific development as an exemplar. And so, I chose the ever evolving story of Thermodynamics as a scientific investigation at its best.
Conducted over a period of >200 years, Thermodynamics R&D, and application, benefitted from the highest levels of professionalism, collaboration, and technical thoroughness. New layers of application, methodology, and practice were made possible by the progressive advance of technology. In turn, this has seen measurement and modelling accuracy continually improved at a micro and macro level.
Perhaps most importantly, Thermodynamics rapidly became a primary tool in the advance of applied science/engineering/technology, spanning micro-tech, to aerospace and cosmology. I can think of no better a story to illustrate the breadth of scientific methodologies and applications at their best.
Current Ms word generated power point presentation covers major details about the micronuclei test. It's significance and assays to conduct it. It is used to detect the micronuclei formation inside the cells of nearly every multicellular organism. It's formation takes place during chromosomal sepration at metaphase.
2. Chapter 7
Amines and Amides
General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry,Fifth Edition
H. Stephen Stoker
Brroks/Cole Cengage Learning. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Prepared by:
GIZEL R. SANTIAGO
3. 3
Chapter 7 Topics
• Bonding Characteristics of Nitrogen Atoms in Organic
Compounds
• Structure and Classification of Amines
• Nomenclature for Amines
• Isomerism for Amines
• Physical Properties of Amines
• Basicity of Amines
• Amine Salts
• Preparation of Amines and Quaternary Ammonium
Salts
4. 4
Chapter 7 Topics
• Heterocyclic Amines
• Selected Biochemically Important Amines
• Alkaloids
• Structure of and Classification of Amides
• Nomenclature for Amides
• Selected Amides and Their Uses
• Physical Properties of Amides
• Preparation of Amides
• Hydrolysis of Amides
• Polyamides and Polyurethanes
6. 6
Structure and Classifications of Amines
An amine is an organic derivative of
ammonia (NH3) in which one or more alkyl,
cycloalkyl, or aryl groups are attached to the
nitrogen atom. Amines are classified as
primary (10), secondary (20), or tertiary (30)
on the basis of how many hydrocarbon
groups are bonded to the ammonia nitrogen
atom.
7. 7
Structure and Classifications of Amines
A primary amine is an amine in which the
nitrogen atom is bonded to one hydrocarbon
group and two hydrogen atoms. The generalized
formula for a primary amine is RNH2. A secondary
amine is an amine in which the nitrogen atom is
bonded to two hydrocarbon groups and one
hydrogen atom. The generalized formula for a
secondary amine is R2NH.
8. 8
Structure and Classifications of Amines
A tertiary amine is an amine in
which the nitrogen atom is
bonded to three hydrocarbon
groups and no hydrogen atoms.
The generalized formula for a
tertiary amine is R3N.
9. 9
Structure and Classifications of Amines
The basis for the amine primary-secondary-
tertiary classification system differs from that
for alcohols.
1.For alcohols we look at how many R groups
are on a carbon atom, the hydroxyl bearing
carbon atom.
2.For amines we look at how many R groups
are on the nitrogen atom.
10. 10
Structure and Classifications of Amines
Tert-butyl alcohol is a tertiary alcohol,
whereas tert-butylamine is a primary
amine.
11. 11
Structure and Classifications of Amines
The functional group present in a
primary amine, the —NH2 group, is
called an amino group. An amino
group is the —NH2 functional group.
Secondary and tertiary amines
possess substituted amino groups.
16. 16
Nomenclature for Amines
Both common and IUPAC names are
extensively used for amines. In the common
system of nomenclature, amines are named by
listing the alkyl group or groups attached to
the nitrogen atom in alphabetical order and
adding the suffix -amine; all of this appears as
one word. Prefixes such as di- and tri- are
added when identical groups are bonded to
the nitrogen atom.
18. 18
Nomenclature for Amines
The IUPAC rules for naming amines are similar
to those for alcohols. Alcohols are named as
alkanols and amines are named as alkanamines.
IUPAC rules for naming primary amines are as
follows:
Rule 1: Select as the parent carbon chain the
longest chain to which the nitrogen atom is
attached.
19. 19
Nomenclature for Amines
Rule 2: Name the parent chain by changing the
-e ending of the corresponding alkane name to
-amine.
Rule 3: Number the parent chain from the end
nearest the nitrogen atom.
Rule 4: The position of attachment of the
nitrogen atom is indicated by a number in front
of the parent chain name.
20. 20
Nomenclature for Amines
Rule 5: The identity and location of any
substituents are appended to the front of the
parent chain name.
21. 21
Nomenclature for Amines
In diamines, the final -e of the carbon chain
name is retained for ease of pronunciation.
Thus the base name for a four-carbon chain
bearing two amino groups is butanediamine.
22. 22
Nomenclature for Amines
Secondary and tertiary amines are named as N-
substituted primary amines. The largest carbon
group bonded to the nitrogen is used as the parent
amine name. The names of the other groups
attached to the nitrogen are appended to the front
of the base name, and N- or N,N- prefixes are used
to indicate that these groups are attached to the
nitrogen atom rather than to the base carbon chain.
30. 30
Isomerism for Amines
Different positioning of the nitrogen atom on a
carbon chain is another cause for isomerism,
illustrated in the following compounds.
31. 31
Isomerism for Amines
For secondary and tertiary amines,
different partitioning of carbon atoms
among the carbon chains present produces
constitutional isomers. There are three C4
secondary amines; carbon atom
partitioning can be two ethyl groups, a
propyl group and a methyl group, or an
isopropyl group and a methyl group.
33. 33
Physical Properties for Amines
The methylamines (mono-, di-, and tri-)
and ethylamine are gases at room
temperature and have ammonia-like
odors. Most other amines are liquids, and
many have odors resembling that of raw
fish. A few amines, particularly diamines,
have strong, disagreeable odors.
34. 34
Physical Properties for Amines
The foul odor arising from dead fish
and decaying flesh is due to amines
released by the bacterial
decomposition of protein. Two of
these “odoriferous” compounds are
the diamines putrescine and
cadaverine.
36. 36
Physical Properties for Amines
The simpler amines are irritating to the
skin, eyes, and mucous membranes and
are toxic by ingestion. Aromatic amines are
generally toxic. Many are readily absorbed
through the skin and affect both the blood
and the nervous system.
37. 37
Physical Properties for Amines
The boiling points of amines are intermediate
between those of alkanes and alcohols of
similar molecular mass. They are higher than
alkane boiling points, because hydrogen
bonding is possible between amine molecules
but not between alkane molecules.
Intermolecular hydrogen bonding of amines
involves the hydrogen atoms and nitrogen
atoms of the amino groups.
38. 38
Physical Properties for Amines
Amines with fewer than six carbon atoms are
infinitely soluble in water. This solubility results
from hydrogen bonding between the amines
and water. Even tertiary amines are water-
soluble, because the amine nitrogen atom has
a nonbonding electron pair that can form a
hydrogen bond with a hydrogen atom of water.
40. 40
Basicity of Amines
The result of the interaction of an amine with
water is a basic solution containing substituted
ammonium ions and hydroxide ions. A
substituted ammonium ion is an ammonium
ion in which one or more alkyl, cycloalkyl, or
aryl groups have been substituted for
hydrogen atoms.
41. 41
Basicity of Amines
Two important generalizations apply to substituted
ammonium ions.
1. Substituted ammonium ions are charged species
rather than neutral molecules.
2. The nitrogen atom in an ammonium ion or a
substituted ammonium ion participates in four
bonds. In a neutral compound, nitrogen atoms form
only three bonds. Four bonds about a nitrogen atom
are possible, however, when the species is a positive
ion because the fourth bond is a coordinate covalent
bond.
42. 42
Basicity of Amines
Naming the positive ion that results
from the interaction of an amine with
water is based on the following two
rules:
Rule 1: For alkylamines, the ending of
the name of the amine is changed
from amine to ammonium ion.
47. 47
Amine Salts
The reaction of an acid with a base
(neutralization) produces a salt. Because
amines are bases, their reaction with an acid
produces a salt, an amine salt.
49. 49
Amine Salts
An amine salt is an ionic compound in which
the positive ion is a mono-, di-, or trisubstituted
ammonium ion (RNH30, R2NH20, or R3NH0) and
the negative ion comes from an acid. Amine
salts can be obtained in crystalline form
(odorless, white crystals) by evaporating the
water from the acidic solutions in which amine
salts are prepared.
50. 50
Amine Salts
Amine salts are named using standard
nomenclature procedures for ionic compounds.
The name of the positive ion, the substituted
ammonium or anilinium ion, is given fi rst and is
followed by a separate word for the name of
the negative ion.
51. 51
Amine Salts
An older naming system for amine salts, still
used in the pharmaceutical industry, treats
amine salts as amine–acid complexes rather
than as ionic compounds. In this system, the
amine salt made from dimethylamine and
hydrochloric acid is named and represented as
52. 52
Amine Salts
The process of forming amine salts with acids is
an easily reversed process. Treating an amine
salt with a strong base such as NaOH
regenerates the “parent” amine.
53. 53
Amine Salts
The “opposite nature” of the processes of
amine salt formation from an amine and the
regeneration of the amine from its amine salt
can be diagrammed as follows:
54. 54
Amine Salts
Because amines and their salts are so
easily interconverted, the amine itself is
often designated as the free amine or free
base or as the deprotonated form of the
amine, to distinguish it from the
protonated form of the amine, which is
present in the amine salt.
58. 58
Preparation of Amines and Quaternary
Ammonium SaltsGeneralized equations for the alkylation process are:
59. 59
Preparation of Amines and Quaternary
Ammonium SaltsAlkylation under basic conditions is actually a two-
step process. In the fi rst step, using a primary amine
preparation as an example, an amine salt is
produced.
60. 60
Preparation of Amines and Quaternary
Ammonium SaltsThe second step, which involves the base present
(NaOH), converts the amine salt to free amine.
61. 61
Preparation of Amines and Quaternary
Ammonium SaltsA specific example of the production of a primary
amine from ammonia is the reaction of ethyl
bromide with ammonia to produce ethylamine. The
chemical equation (with both steps combined) is
62. 62
Preparation of Amines and Quaternary
Ammonium Salts
If the newly formed primary amine
produced in an ammonia alkylation
reaction is not quickly removed from the
reaction mixture, the nitrogen atom of the
amine may react with further alkyl halide
molecules, giving, in succession, secondary
and tertiary amines.
65. 65
Preparation of Amines and Quaternary
Ammonium SaltsTertiary amines react with alkyl halides in
the presence of a strong base to produce
a quaternary ammonium salt. A
quaternary ammonium salt is an
ammonium salt in which all four groups
attached to the nitrogen atom of the
ammonium ion are hydrocarbon groups.
67. 67
Preparation of Amines and Quaternary
Ammonium Salts
Compounds that contain quaternary
ammonium ions are important in biochemical
systems. Choline and acetylcholine are two
important quaternary ammonium ions
present in the human body. Choline has
important roles in both fat transport and
growth regulation. Acetylcholine is involved in
the transmission of nerve impulses.
69. 69
Heterocyclic Amines
A heterocyclic amine is an organic
compound in which nitrogen atoms of
amine groups are part of either an
aromatic or a nonaromatic ring
system. Heterocyclic amines are the
most common type of heterocyclic
organic compound.
70. 70
Heterocyclic Amines
Heterocyclic amine structures shows
that (1) ring systems may be
saturated, unsaturated, or aromatic,
(2) more than one nitrogen atom may
be present in a given ring, and (3)
fused ring systems often occur.
74. 74
Selected Biochemically Important Amines
Neurotransmitters
A neurotransmitter is a chemical substance
that is released at the end of a nerve,
travels across the synaptic gap between
the nerve and another nerve, and then
bonds to a receptor site on the other
nerve, triggering a nerve impulse.
75. 75
Selected Biochemically Important Amines
Neurotransmitters
The most important
neurotransmitters in the human body
are acetylcholine and the amines
norepinephrine, dopamine, and
serotonin.
79. 79
Selected Biochemically Important Amines
Epinephrine
Epinephrine, also known as adrenaline, has
some neurotransmitter functions but is more
important as a central nervous system
stimulant.
80. 80
Selected Biochemically Important Amines
Histamine
The heterocyclic amine
histamine is responsible
for the unpleasant effects
felt by individuals
susceptible to hay fever
and various pollen
allergies.
84. 84
Structure and Classification of Amides
An amide is a carboxylic acid derivative in
which the carboxyl —OH group has been
replaced with an amino or a substituted amino
group.
85. 85
Structure and Classification of Amides
Amides, like amines, can be classified as
primary (10), secondary (20), or tertiary (30),
depending on how many hydrogen atoms are
attached to the nitrogen atom.
86. 86
Structure and Classification of Amides
A primary amide is an amide in which two
hydrogen atoms are bonded to the amide
nitrogen atom. Such amides are also called
unsubstituted amides. A secondary amide is an
amide in which an alkyl (or aryl) group and a
hydrogen atom are bonded to the amide
nitrogen atom. Monosubstituted amide is
another name for this type of amide.
87. 87
Structure and Classification of Amides
A tertiary amide is an amide in
which two alkyl (or aryl) groups
and no hydrogen atoms are
bonded to the amide nitrogen
atom. Such amides are
disubstituted amides.
89. 89
Structure and Classification of Amides
The simplest amide
has a hydrogen
atom attached to an
unsubstituted
amide functional
group.
90. 90
Structure and Classification of Amides
Next in complexity are amides in which a methyl
group is present. There are two of them, one with
the methyl group attached to the carbon atom and
the other with the methyl group attached to the
nitrogen atom.
91. 91
Structure and Classification of Amides
The first of these structures
is a 10 amide, and the second
structure is a 20 amide. The
structure of the simplest
aromatic amide involves a
benzene ring to which an
unsubstituted amide
functional group is attached.
93. 93
Structure and Classification of Amides
Cyclic amides are called lactams, a term that
parallels the use of the term lactones for cyclic
esters
94. 94
Structure and Classification of Amides
A lactam is a cyclic amide. The ring size in a
lactam is indicated using a Greek letter. A
lactam with a four-membered ring is a b-
lactam because the b carbon from the
carbonyl group is bonded to the
heteroatom. A lactam with a five-
membered ring is a g-lactam.
95. 95
Structure and Classification of Amides
The members of the penicillin family of
antibiotics have structures that contain a b-
lactam ring.
96. 96
Nomenclature for Amides
Rule 1: T he ending of the name of the
carboxylic acid is changed from -ic acid
(common) or -oic acid (IUPAC) to -amide. For
example, benzoic acid becomes benzamide.
Rule 2: T he names of groups attached to the
nitrogen (20 and 30 amides) are appended to
the front of the base name, using an N- prefi x
as a locator.
98. 98
Nomenclature for Amides
Nomenclature for secondary and tertiary amides,
amides with substituted amino groups, involves use
of the prefix N-, a practice we previously
encountered with amine nomenclature
99. 99
Nomenclature for Amides
The simplest aromatic amide, a benzene ring bearing
an unsubstituted amide group, is called benzamide.
Other aromatic amides are named as benzamide
derivatives.
102. 102
Selected Amides and their Uses
The simplest naturally occurring amide is urea,
a water-soluble white solid produced in the
human body from carbon dioxide and ammonia
through a complex series of metabolic
reactions.
103. 103
Selected Amides and their Uses
Urea is a one-carbon diamide. Its molecular
structure is
104. 104
Selected Amides and their Uses
Melatonin is a polyfunctional amide; amine
and ether groups are also present.
105. 105
Selected Amides and their Uses
Barbiturates, which are cyclic amide
compounds, are a heavily used group of
prescription drugs that cause relaxation
(tranquilizers), sleep (sedatives), and death
(overdoses). All barbiturates are derivatives
of barbituric acid, a cyclic amide that was first
synthesized from urea and malonic acid.
107. 107
Physical Properties of Amides
Amides do not exhibit basic properties in
solution as amines do.
Methanamide and its N-methyl and N,N-
dimethyl derivatives (the simplest 10, 20, and 30
amides, respectively), are all liquids at room
temperature. All unbranched primary amides,
except methanamide, are solids at room
temperature, as are most other amides.
108. 108
Physical Properties of Amides
In many cases, the
amide melting point is
even higher than that of
the corresponding
carboxylic acid. Amides
of low molecular mass,
up to five or six carbon
atoms, are soluble in
water.
111. 111
Preparation of Amides
An amidification reaction is the reaction of
a carboxylic acid with an amine (or
ammonia) to produce an amide. In
amidification, an —OH group is lost from
the carboxylic acid, a —H atom is lost from
the ammonia or amine, and water is
formed as a by-product. Amidification
reactions are thus condensation reactions.
117. 117
Hydrolysis of Amides
In amide hydrolysis, the bond between
the carbonyl carbon atom and the
nitrogen is broken, and free acid and
free amine are produced. Amide
hydrolysis is catalyzed by acids, bases,
or certain enzymes; sustained heating
is also often required.
119. 119
Hydrolysis of Amides
Acidic or basic hydrolysis conditions
have an effect on the products. Acidic
conditions convert the product amine
to an amine salt. Basic conditions
convert the product carboxylic acid to
a carboxylic acid salt.
124. 124
Polyamides and Polyurethanes
Amide polymers—polyamides—are
synthesized by combining diamines and
dicarboxylic acids in a condensation
polymerization reaction. A polyamide is a
condensation polymer in which the
monomers are joined through amide
linkages.
125. 125
Polyamides and Polyurethanes
The most important synthetic polyamide is nylon.
Nylon is used in clothing and hosiery, as well as in
carpets, tire cord, rope, and parachutes. It also has
nonfiber uses; for example, it is used in paint
brushes, electrical parts, valves, and fasteners. It is a
tough, strong, nontoxic, nonflammable material that
is resistant to chemicals. Surgical suture is made of
nylon because it is such a strong fiber.
132. 132
Polyamides and Polyurethanes
A urethane is a hydrocarbon
derivative that contains a carbonyl
group bonded to both an —OR group
and a —NHR (or –NR2) group. Such
compounds are prepared by reaction
of an alcohol with an isocyanate
(R-N=C-O).
134. 134
Polyamides and Polyurethanes
A polyurethane is a polymer
formed from the reaction of
dialcohol and diisocyanate
monomers. The monomers
benzene diisocyanate and
ethylene glycol are the reactants.
142. End of Chapter 7
Amines and Amides
General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry,Fifth Edition
H. Stephen Stoker
Brroks/Cole Cengage Learning. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Prepared by:
GIZEL R. SANTIAGO