Multi enzyme complex
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This document describes the steps in a multi-enzyme complex involved in fatty acid synthesis. It outlines 8 steps: 1) an acyl transfer step, 2) a malonyl transfer step, 3) a condensation step, 4) a keto reduction step, 5) another condensation step, 6) a saturation step, 7) a transfer step, and 8) a cleavage step. Each step involves the action of a different enzyme to transfer, condense, reduce, or cleave chemical groups and ultimately produce a fatty acid.
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Bisubstrate reactions enzyme kinetics
This document discusses two types of bisubstrate reactions: sequential or single-displacement reactions and ping-pong or double-displacement reactions. Sequential reactions involve both substrates binding to the enzyme before products are released, and can be ordered or random. Ping-pong reactions involve one substrate binding and being modified, then releasing one product before the second substrate binds and the second product is released, regenerating the original enzyme. Examples of each type of reaction are provided to illustrate the mechanisms.
Allosteric enzymes
1) Allosteric enzymes have additional sites called allosteric sites that are distinct from the active site. Binding of an effector molecule to these sites can induce a conformational change in the active site, increasing or decreasing the enzyme's activity.
2) There are two main models that describe allosteric regulation - the concerted model where binding causes simultaneous changes in all subunits, and the sequential model where changes occur sequentially.
3) Allosteric enzymes exhibit sigmoidal kinetics curves rather than traditional hyperbolic curves due to their cooperative binding behavior. Positive allosteric effectors increase enzyme activity while negative effectors decrease it.
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This document discusses enzymes and their catalytic properties. It begins by explaining that enzymes are protein catalysts that speed up biochemical reactions by lowering their activation energy. It then discusses the chemical nature of enzymes as proteins made of amino acid chains. The document covers several factors that affect enzyme activity, such as temperature, pH, and concentration of enzymes and substrates. It also discusses enzyme specificity and inhibition. Key terms related to enzymes and their reactions are defined.
Enzyme catalysis mechanisms involved
Enzymes use several catalytic mechanisms to lower the free energy of transition states and greatly increase reaction rates, including acid-base catalysis, covalent catalysis, metal ion catalysis, and bringing substrates into close proximity and proper orientation. Acid-base catalysis involves proton transfer from catalytic amino acid side chains. Covalent catalysis transiently forms covalent bonds between enzyme and substrate. Metal ion catalysis uses transition metals to orient substrates, mediate redox reactions, or stabilize charges. Proximity and orientation align substrates for reaction, while catalysis by approximation brings two substrates together for reaction.
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This document discusses enzymology and the key properties of enzymes. It defines enzymes as specialized proteins that act as catalysts and mediate chemical reactions in the body. Enzymes are important in clinical settings, with many enzyme assays accounting for 40-50% of laboratory work. The document outlines that enzymes are protein catalysts synthesized by living systems, and have properties like being catalytic, substrate-specific, and able to function under moderate pH and temperature ranges. It also describes characteristics like active sites, compartmentalization in cells, and the formation of enzyme-substrate complexes during catalysis.
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This document provides an overview of allosteric enzymes. It defines allosteric enzymes as enzymes whose activity is regulated by the binding of allosteric effectors at sites other than the active site. There are two types of allosteric effectors - positive effectors that increase enzyme activity and negative effectors that decrease it. Allosteric enzymes display cooperative binding and sigmoidal kinetics. They are classified as K-class or V-class depending on whether the effector changes the Km or Vmax value. Models like the Monod-Wyman-Changeux model and Koshland-Nemethy-Filmer model are described as proposed mechanisms for allosteric regulation. Aspartate transcarbamoylase
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Enzymes are important biological molecules found in living systems. Early attempts at purifying enzymes were made in the 1920s. Methods are needed to isolate enzymes for further study and applications. Common methods to isolate enzymes include breaking open cell walls through grinding, freezing and thawing, using hydrolytic enzymes, blending, altering pH or ionic strength, and using organic solvents. Further purification techniques include centrifugation, gel filtration chromatography, affinity chromatography, and changing solubility through pH or salt concentration. Specific methods have also been developed for isolating individual enzymes like urease and pepsin.
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This document discusses two types of bisubstrate reactions: sequential or single-displacement reactions and ping-pong or double-displacement reactions. Sequential reactions involve both substrates binding to the enzyme before products are released, and can be ordered or random. Ping-pong reactions involve one substrate binding and being modified, then releasing one product before the second substrate binds and the second product is released, regenerating the original enzyme. Examples of each type of reaction are provided to illustrate the mechanisms.
Allosteric enzymes
1) Allosteric enzymes have additional sites called allosteric sites that are distinct from the active site. Binding of an effector molecule to these sites can induce a conformational change in the active site, increasing or decreasing the enzyme's activity.
2) There are two main models that describe allosteric regulation - the concerted model where binding causes simultaneous changes in all subunits, and the sequential model where changes occur sequentially.
3) Allosteric enzymes exhibit sigmoidal kinetics curves rather than traditional hyperbolic curves due to their cooperative binding behavior. Positive allosteric effectors increase enzyme activity while negative effectors decrease it.
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This document discusses enzymes and their catalytic properties. It begins by explaining that enzymes are protein catalysts that speed up biochemical reactions by lowering their activation energy. It then discusses the chemical nature of enzymes as proteins made of amino acid chains. The document covers several factors that affect enzyme activity, such as temperature, pH, and concentration of enzymes and substrates. It also discusses enzyme specificity and inhibition. Key terms related to enzymes and their reactions are defined.
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Enzymes use several catalytic mechanisms to lower the free energy of transition states and greatly increase reaction rates, including acid-base catalysis, covalent catalysis, metal ion catalysis, and bringing substrates into close proximity and proper orientation. Acid-base catalysis involves proton transfer from catalytic amino acid side chains. Covalent catalysis transiently forms covalent bonds between enzyme and substrate. Metal ion catalysis uses transition metals to orient substrates, mediate redox reactions, or stabilize charges. Proximity and orientation align substrates for reaction, while catalysis by approximation brings two substrates together for reaction.
Introduction -1st lec
This document discusses enzymology and the key properties of enzymes. It defines enzymes as specialized proteins that act as catalysts and mediate chemical reactions in the body. Enzymes are important in clinical settings, with many enzyme assays accounting for 40-50% of laboratory work. The document outlines that enzymes are protein catalysts synthesized by living systems, and have properties like being catalytic, substrate-specific, and able to function under moderate pH and temperature ranges. It also describes characteristics like active sites, compartmentalization in cells, and the formation of enzyme-substrate complexes during catalysis.
Allosteric enzymes
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Methods of enzyme isolation and purification
Enzymes are important biological molecules found in living systems. Early attempts at purifying enzymes were made in the 1920s. Methods are needed to isolate enzymes for further study and applications. Common methods to isolate enzymes include breaking open cell walls through grinding, freezing and thawing, using hydrolytic enzymes, blending, altering pH or ionic strength, and using organic solvents. Further purification techniques include centrifugation, gel filtration chromatography, affinity chromatography, and changing solubility through pH or salt concentration. Specific methods have also been developed for isolating individual enzymes like urease and pepsin.
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The document summarizes the mechanisms of enzyme catalysis. It discusses how enzymes lower the activation energy of reactions by releasing binding energy when interacting with substrates. This allows enzymes to accelerate reactions by stabilizing transition states. There are three main types of catalytic mechanisms: acid-base catalysis, covalent catalysis, and metal ion catalysis. Acid-base catalysis involves proton transfers. Covalent catalysis forms temporary covalent bonds between enzymes and substrates. Metal ion catalysis uses metal ions like iron and copper to orient and stabilize reactive molecules in enzyme active sites.
Bisubstrate
This document discusses bisubstrate reactions, which involve two substrates and produce two products. Approximately 60% of biochemical reactions are bisubstrate reactions. They can be transferase reactions, where a functional group is transferred between substrates, or oxidation-reduction reactions. Bisubstrate reactions fall into two categories: sequential reactions, where substrates bind sequentially before products are released; and ping pong reactions, where an intermediate enzyme form is produced after the first substrate reaction. Common examples of each type of bisubstrate reaction are provided.
Regulation of enzyme activity
The document discusses various modes of regulating enzyme activity, including allosteric regulation, covalent modification, induction and repression, compartmentalization, and isoenzymes. Allosteric regulation involves effector molecules binding at allosteric sites and inducing conformational changes that increase or decrease the enzyme's activity. Covalent modification can activate or inactivate enzymes through additions like phosphorylation. Induction and repression alter the amount of enzyme by increasing or decreasing its synthesis in response to signals. Compartmentalization separates pathways to increase efficiency, while isoenzymes form multienzyme complexes for the same purpose.
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Pyruvate is converted to acetyl CoA by the pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) complex in the mitochondria. PDH is a multi-enzyme complex containing five coenzymes and three enzymes that catalyzes the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate. This generates acetyl CoA, NADH, and FADH2, with the NADH and FADH2 contributing to ATP production through oxidative phosphorylation. PDH activity is regulated by phosphorylation/dephosphorylation and end-product inhibition by acetyl CoA and NADH.
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Enzyme kinetics is the study of enzyme-catalyzed chemical reactions. Enzymes lower the activation energy of reactions by binding substrates to their active sites. Multi-substrate reactions can follow sequential or non-sequential mechanisms. In sequential mechanisms, both substrates must bind before any product is released, while non-sequential mechanisms allow product release before all substrates bind. Ping-pong mechanisms are a type of non-sequential mechanism where the enzyme is temporarily modified between substrate bindings.
COVALENT MODIFICATION AND ZYMOGEN ACTIVATION
1) Covalent modifications, both reversible and irreversible, play important roles in regulating enzyme function. Reversible modifications like phosphorylation fine-tune enzyme activity, while irreversible proteolysis activates zymogens into active enzymes.
2) Digestive enzymes like trypsinogen are synthesized as inactive zymogens to avoid unwanted catalysis, then activated through limited and specific proteolysis. This proteolysis removes inhibitory peptide sequences and allows catalytic activity.
3) Activation of zymogens through proteolytic cascades amplifies hormonal signals, allowing a small stimulus to elicit a large response. This cascade activation greatly increases the potency and efficiency of regulation compared to direct hormone binding.
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Enzyme kinetics
Enzyme kinetics is the study of reaction rates catalyzed by enzymes. Michaelis and Menten developed an equation to describe enzyme kinetics based on the assumptions that enzyme-substrate complexes form rapidly and at steady state. The Michaelis-Menten equation relates reaction rate to substrate concentration and can be linearized using double reciprocal plots. Enzyme kinetics are affected by factors like pH, temperature, and substrate concentration, and some enzymes use two substrates in either sequential or double displacement mechanisms.
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it is bypass cycle of citric acid cycle.
it give the brief description of glyoxylate cycle.
it is the summary of glyoxylate cycle for m.sc, bsc, science students.
it is very important topic for entrance exam of biology stream.
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Allosteric enzymes
Some of the enzyme possess additional sites, known as allosteric sites besides the active site . Such as know as allosteric enzyme. The allosteric sites are unique place on the enzyme molecules allosteric enzyme have one or more allosteric site.
HISTRY
The term allosteric has been introduced by the two Noble Laureates JACOB AND MONOD to denote an enzyme site different from the active site which non competitively bands molecule other than the substrate and may influence the enzyme activity.
Properties of allosteric enzyme
Effector may be positive or negative, this effector regulate the enzyme activity . The enzyme activity is increased when a positive allosteric effector binds at the allosteric site known as activator site. On the other hand negative allosteric effector bind at the allosteric site called inhibitor site and inhibit the enzyme activity
Fatty acid oxidation
1) Fatty acids are oxidized through beta-oxidation in the mitochondria to generate acetyl-CoA units and energy in the form of ATP.
2) Beta-oxidation involves four steps - dehydrogenation, hydration, dehydrogenation, and thiolysis - that occur in a recurring cycle to shorten the fatty acid by two carbons each time.
3) Fatty acid oxidation provides the major source of energy during periods of fasting or low carbohydrate availability and yields substantial ATP through the electron transport chain.
Regulation of enzyme activity
1. Enzyme activity can be regulated through several mechanisms including allosteric regulation, feedback inhibition, proenzymes, and protein modification.
2. Allosteric enzymes have effector molecules that bind and induce a conformational change that increases or decreases enzyme activity. Feedback inhibition occurs when a metabolic end product inhibits an earlier enzyme.
3. Proenzymes are inactive precursors that are activated by proteolytic cleavage. Protein modification like phosphorylation can also regulate enzymes by changing their structure.
Pentose phosphate pathway (Hexose Monophosphate Pathway)
Pentose phosphate pathway is an alternative pathway to glycolysis and TCA cycle for oxidation of glucose. It is a shunt of glycolysis. It is also known as hexose monophosphate (HMP) shunt or phosphogluconate pathway. It occurs in cytoplasm of both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. While it involves oxidation of glucose, its primary role is anabolic rather than catabolic. It is an important pathway that generates precursors for nucleotide synthesis and is especially important in red blood cells (erythrocytes).
Classification and nomenclature of enzymes
This document discusses the classification and nomenclature of enzymes. It describes three naming systems: trivial names which provide no functional information; systematic names which indicate the substrate and type of reaction; and EC (Enzyme Commission) numbers which classify enzymes into six main classes based on the type of chemical reaction catalyzed. The six classes are oxidoreductases, transferases, hydrolases, lyases, isomerases, and ligases. EC numbers are a four-digit code that precisely identifies each enzyme and its catalytic activity.
isoenzymes
Isoenzymes are multiple forms of the same enzyme that catalyze the same chemical reaction but have different physical or chemical properties. Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and creatine phosphokinase (CK) are examples of enzymes with multiple isoenzyme forms that exhibit tissue-specific expression and properties. Elevated levels of specific isoenzymes of LDH and CK can indicate tissue damage or diseases of the heart, liver, kidney, and other organs.
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According to the International Union of Biochemistry, enzymes are classified into six major classes:
1. Oxidoreductases catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions and are divided into oxidases, anaerobic dehydrogenases, and hydroperoxidases.
2. Transferases catalyze group transfers and include methyl, carboxyl, aldehyde/keto, glucosyl, amino, phosphorus, acyl, and sulfur transferases.
3. Hydrolases catalyze hydrolysis reactions and include esterases, glycosidases, peptidases, deamidases, and phosphatases acting on acid anhydrides.
4. Lyases cleave groups from substrates without
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The document discusses various modes of regulating enzyme activity, including allosteric regulation, covalent modification, induction and repression, compartmentalization, and isoenzymes. Allosteric regulation involves effector molecules binding at allosteric sites and inducing conformational changes that increase or decrease the enzyme's activity. Covalent modification can activate or inactivate enzymes through additions like phosphorylation. Induction and repression alter the amount of enzyme by increasing or decreasing its synthesis in response to signals. Compartmentalization separates pathways to increase efficiency, while isoenzymes form multienzyme complexes for the same purpose.
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Pyruvate is converted to acetyl CoA by the pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) complex in the mitochondria. PDH is a multi-enzyme complex containing five coenzymes and three enzymes that catalyzes the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate. This generates acetyl CoA, NADH, and FADH2, with the NADH and FADH2 contributing to ATP production through oxidative phosphorylation. PDH activity is regulated by phosphorylation/dephosphorylation and end-product inhibition by acetyl CoA and NADH.
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Proteolytic Activation
Many enzymes exist as inactive forms known as zymogens or Proenzymes • proenzymes are synthesized as inactive precursors that are subsequently activated by cleavage of one or a few specific peptide bonds. • a energy source (ATP) is not needed for cleavage. contrast with reversible regulation by phosphorylation, even proteins located outside cells can be activated by this means. • Proteolytic activation, in contrast with allosteric control and reversible covalent modification, occurs just once in the life of an enzyme molecule i.e. the process is irreversible.
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This document discusses various mechanisms of enzyme regulation in living systems. It begins by explaining that hundreds of enzyme-catalyzed reactions must be precisely controlled for proper cellular functioning. It then describes several key mechanisms by which this regulation can be achieved, including allosteric regulation, isoenzyme expression, zymogen activation, and covalent modification via phosphorylation or glycosylation. Specific examples are provided for each type of regulation, such as feedback inhibition of threonine dehydratase and phosphorylation control of glycogen phosphorylase activity. The document concludes by emphasizing that multiple regulatory strategies acting together ensure survival of the cell and maintenance of homeostasis.
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Abzymes
Abzymes, also known as catalytic antibodies, are monoclonal antibodies that exhibit enzymatic activity. They are able to bind to transition states of enzyme-catalyzed reactions with high specificity and affinity, stabilizing the transition state and increasing reaction rates. Abzymes can be artificially produced by immunizing animals with transition state analogs of reactions. They have potential applications in drug development, cancer treatment, and developing therapies for viral infections like HIV. Researchers have engineered an abzyme that can degrade an essential region of the HIV envelope protein, rendering the virus unable to infect cells.
BIOSYNTHESIS OF FATTY ACIDS
This document summarizes the process of de novo fatty acid synthesis. It occurs in the cytosol of liver, kidney, adipose tissue, and lactating mammary glands. Acetyl-CoA is the starting material, which is transported from mitochondria to the cytosol via citrate. In the cytosol, fatty acid synthase complex catalyzes the reactions to produce palmitic acid (C16) through cycles of condensation, reduction, dehydration, and reduction. The process requires acetyl-CoA, malonyl-CoA, ATP, and NADPH as substrates and is regulated by enzymes and hormones.
Kinetics of multi substrate enzyme catalyzed reaction
Enzyme kinetics is the study of enzyme-catalyzed chemical reactions. Enzymes lower the activation energy of reactions by binding substrates to their active sites. Multi-substrate reactions can follow sequential or non-sequential mechanisms. In sequential mechanisms, both substrates must bind before any product is released, while non-sequential mechanisms allow product release before all substrates bind. Ping-pong mechanisms are a type of non-sequential mechanism where the enzyme is temporarily modified between substrate bindings.
COVALENT MODIFICATION AND ZYMOGEN ACTIVATION
1) Covalent modifications, both reversible and irreversible, play important roles in regulating enzyme function. Reversible modifications like phosphorylation fine-tune enzyme activity, while irreversible proteolysis activates zymogens into active enzymes.
2) Digestive enzymes like trypsinogen are synthesized as inactive zymogens to avoid unwanted catalysis, then activated through limited and specific proteolysis. This proteolysis removes inhibitory peptide sequences and allows catalytic activity.
3) Activation of zymogens through proteolytic cascades amplifies hormonal signals, allowing a small stimulus to elicit a large response. This cascade activation greatly increases the potency and efficiency of regulation compared to direct hormone binding.
Deoxyribonucleotides
Ribonucleotide reductase converts ribonucleotides to deoxyribonucleotides through reduction of the 2'-OH group on the ribose sugar. It is a heterotetrameric enzyme composed of R1 and R2 subunits, with the R2 subunit containing a tyrosyl free radical required for activity. Thioredoxin provides reducing equivalents to ribonucleotide reductase through thioredoxin reductase and NADPH to allow for continuous reduction of ribonucleotides to the corresponding deoxyribonucleotides needed for DNA synthesis.
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Enzyme kinetics is the study of reaction rates catalyzed by enzymes. Michaelis and Menten developed an equation to describe enzyme kinetics based on the assumptions that enzyme-substrate complexes form rapidly and at steady state. The Michaelis-Menten equation relates reaction rate to substrate concentration and can be linearized using double reciprocal plots. Enzyme kinetics are affected by factors like pH, temperature, and substrate concentration, and some enzymes use two substrates in either sequential or double displacement mechanisms.
Glyoxylate cycle
it is bypass cycle of citric acid cycle.
it give the brief description of glyoxylate cycle.
it is the summary of glyoxylate cycle for m.sc, bsc, science students.
it is very important topic for entrance exam of biology stream.
Allosteric and feedback regulation
This document discusses allosteric and feedback regulation of enzymes. It defines allosteric enzymes as having sites besides the active site that can bind non-substrate molecules and influence enzyme activity. Two main models of allosteric regulation are described: the symmetrical model and sequential model. Allosteric effectors can be homotropic, which are substrates, or heterotropic, which are regulatory molecules other than substrates that activate or inhibit the enzyme. Examples of allosteric regulation and feedback inhibition are given.
Allosteric enzymes
Some of the enzyme possess additional sites, known as allosteric sites besides the active site . Such as know as allosteric enzyme. The allosteric sites are unique place on the enzyme molecules allosteric enzyme have one or more allosteric site.
HISTRY
The term allosteric has been introduced by the two Noble Laureates JACOB AND MONOD to denote an enzyme site different from the active site which non competitively bands molecule other than the substrate and may influence the enzyme activity.
Properties of allosteric enzyme
Effector may be positive or negative, this effector regulate the enzyme activity . The enzyme activity is increased when a positive allosteric effector binds at the allosteric site known as activator site. On the other hand negative allosteric effector bind at the allosteric site called inhibitor site and inhibit the enzyme activity
Fatty acid oxidation
1) Fatty acids are oxidized through beta-oxidation in the mitochondria to generate acetyl-CoA units and energy in the form of ATP.
2) Beta-oxidation involves four steps - dehydrogenation, hydration, dehydrogenation, and thiolysis - that occur in a recurring cycle to shorten the fatty acid by two carbons each time.
3) Fatty acid oxidation provides the major source of energy during periods of fasting or low carbohydrate availability and yields substantial ATP through the electron transport chain.
Regulation of enzyme activity
1. Enzyme activity can be regulated through several mechanisms including allosteric regulation, feedback inhibition, proenzymes, and protein modification.
2. Allosteric enzymes have effector molecules that bind and induce a conformational change that increases or decreases enzyme activity. Feedback inhibition occurs when a metabolic end product inhibits an earlier enzyme.
3. Proenzymes are inactive precursors that are activated by proteolytic cleavage. Protein modification like phosphorylation can also regulate enzymes by changing their structure.
Pentose phosphate pathway (Hexose Monophosphate Pathway)
Pentose phosphate pathway is an alternative pathway to glycolysis and TCA cycle for oxidation of glucose. It is a shunt of glycolysis. It is also known as hexose monophosphate (HMP) shunt or phosphogluconate pathway. It occurs in cytoplasm of both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. While it involves oxidation of glucose, its primary role is anabolic rather than catabolic. It is an important pathway that generates precursors for nucleotide synthesis and is especially important in red blood cells (erythrocytes).
Classification and nomenclature of enzymes
This document discusses the classification and nomenclature of enzymes. It describes three naming systems: trivial names which provide no functional information; systematic names which indicate the substrate and type of reaction; and EC (Enzyme Commission) numbers which classify enzymes into six main classes based on the type of chemical reaction catalyzed. The six classes are oxidoreductases, transferases, hydrolases, lyases, isomerases, and ligases. EC numbers are a four-digit code that precisely identifies each enzyme and its catalytic activity.
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Enzymes are protein catalysts that speed up biochemical reactions without being consumed. They have specific three-dimensional structures with active sites that bind substrates and catalyze their conversion to products. There are six main enzyme classes defined by their catalyzed reaction types. Enzyme activity is affected by factors like substrate and enzyme concentration, pH, temperature, and inhibitors. Enzymes lower activation energy and use lock-and-key or induced-fit binding to catalyze reactions efficiently through transition states. Many require cofactors like vitamins and metal ions to function. Enzyme kinetics describe how rates change with conditions and inhibition mechanisms. Enzymes are essential to all living functions but some inhibitors like nerve gases are toxic.
enzyme cofactors_and_vitamins
This document discusses enzyme cofactors and vitamins. It states that many enzymes require cofactors like metal ions or small organic molecules called coenzymes to be active. Coenzymes are often vitamins. Vitamins can be water-soluble and not stored in the body or fat-soluble and stored. Both types serve as cofactors for enzymes involved in important body processes. The document provides details on specific water-soluble vitamins like vitamin C and niacin, and fat-soluble vitamins like vitamin A and D. It includes their roles, recommended daily amounts and deficiency symptoms.
Ldh y cpk
La lactato deshidrogenasa (LDH) es una enzima presente en diversos tejidos como el corazón, hígado y glóbulos rojos. Los análisis de LDH son útiles para identificar daños tisulares y pueden indicar condiciones como anemia hemolítica, ataques cardíacos o cáncer. La creatina fosfoquinasa (CPK) se encuentra en el músculo esquelético y cardiaco y reserva energía; los análisis de CPK pueden diagnosticar problemas musculares o cardiacos como
7 vitamins and cofactors
This document discusses a lecture on vitamins and cofactors. It covers the classification of vitamins as water-soluble or fat-soluble. Vitamins serve as coenzymes and cofactors that facilitate enzyme reactions in the body. Specific vitamins discussed include thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), and niacin (B3). The roles and functions of these vitamins as coenzymes in important metabolic pathways like glycolysis and the citric acid cycle are described. Deficiency symptoms for each vitamin are also mentioned.
enzymes as diagnostic tools
Enzymes can be used as diagnostic tools by measuring their levels in serum. Tissue or cellular damage results in the release of intracellular enzymes into the bloodstream, increasing their serum levels. Some key enzymes used for diagnosis include lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), creatine kinase (CK), alanine transaminase (ALT), aspartate transaminase (AST), alkaline phosphatase, acid phosphatase, and amylase/lipase. Each enzyme is predominantly found in certain tissues, so elevated levels can indicate damage to those tissues. Isoenzymes provide further diagnostic information about the specific organ affected.
chemistry of enzymes, ES complex theories, co factors and coenzymes
Enzymes are protein catalysts that increase the rate of reactions without being changed. They are typically proteins, heat labile, water soluble, and contain nitrogen. Enzymes consist of an apoenzyme protein component and may also contain non-protein cofactors, coenzymes, prosthetic groups, or metal ions. Enzymes act by lowering the activation energy of reactions, either by properly orienting substrates, or utilizing mechanisms like acid/base catalysis, strain induction, or covalent bonding to substrates. This allows enzymes to greatly accelerate chemical reactions by stabilizing high-energy transition states.
Chapter 5 Enzymes Lesson 1 - Introduction to Enzymes
This document discusses enzymes and their roles. It defines enzymes as protein catalysts that speed up chemical reactions without being used up in the process. Enzymes work by lowering the activation energy of reactions. They are specific in what substrates they act on. The document discusses how enzymes play important roles in digestion, breaking down carbohydrates, proteins and fats into smaller molecules, as well as synthesizing complex molecules and breaking down molecules like hydrogen peroxide. Specific enzymes discussed include amylase, cellulase, proteases, lipases and catalase.
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Evolution of photosynthesis
Geological Evidence for photosynthesis, mechanisms of evolution, evolution of co-factors, evolution of protein complexes, photosynthetic reaction centers and electron transport chains
Allosteric inhibition
The document discusses allosteric regulation of enzymes. Allosteric enzymes can exist in two conformations - an active form which can bind substrate and an inactive form which binds inhibitors. Effectors like substrates or inhibitors binding at allosteric sites can stabilize one form over the other. One example discussed is aspartate transcarbamoylase which regulates pyrimidine synthesis and shows cooperative substrate binding and allosteric regulation by ATP and CTP.
CHLOROPLAST AND CHLOROPHYLL
The pigment chlorophyll is found inside the chloroplasts, each leaf contains millions of chloroplasts. Inside each one, there are stacks of membranes that hold the chlorophyll molecules.
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chemistry of enzymes, ES complex theories, co factors and coenzymes
chemistry of enzymes, ES complex theories, co factors and coenzymes
Chapter 5 Enzymes Lesson 1 - Introduction to Enzymes
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Mapa metabólico
This document provides an overview of metabolic pathways and biochemical reactions in living organisms. It depicts the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain involved in cellular respiration. It also shows pathways related to photosynthesis, nitrogen fixation, amino acid biosynthesis, lipid metabolism, porphyrin synthesis, and other central metabolic processes. Arrows connect reactants and products to indicate enzymatic reactions occurring in metabolic networks that break down and synthesize biomolecules.
IB Chemistry Nucleophilic Substitution, SN1, SN2 and protic solvent
This document describes organic functional groups including alkanes, alkenes, alcohols, esters, and their characteristic properties and reactions. Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons with single carbon-carbon bonds and have low reactivity. Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons with carbon-carbon double bonds and undergo addition reactions more readily than alkanes. Alcohols contain an -OH group and can be oxidized to aldehydes, ketones, or carboxylic acids. Esters are formed from the condensation reaction between carboxylic acids and alcohols, producing water.
IB Chemistry on Free radical substitution, Addition and Nucleophilic substitu...
This document describes various classes of organic compounds including alkanes, alkenes, alcohols, esters, and their properties. Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n+2. Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons containing carbon-carbon double bonds with the general formula CnH2n. Alcohols contain an -OH functional group and have the general formula CnH2n+1OH. Esters are formed from the condensation reaction between carboxylic acids and alcohols, producing water as a byproduct. Common chemical reactions for each class are also outlined such as combustion, addition, oxidation, and esterification
Metabolic pathways poster
This document contains a diagram of metabolic pathways and biochemical reactions involved in cellular respiration and photosynthesis. Key molecules and processes depicted include the citric acid cycle, electron transport chain, oxidative phosphorylation, Calvin cycle, glycolysis, and various amino acid, lipid, carbohydrate and pigment metabolic pathways. The diagram shows the transfer and utilization of electrons, protons, and ATP between metabolic reactions located in the mitochondria and chloroplasts.
IB Chemistry on Nucleophilic Substitution, SN1, SN2 and protic solvent
This document provides a tutorial on organic chemistry reactions, specifically nucleophilic substitution reactions (SN1 and SN2) and the reactivity of functional groups. It discusses the properties and reactions of alkanes, alkenes, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, and esters. Key reactions covered include combustion, halogenation, oxidation, esterification, and polymerization. Reaction mechanisms and conditions are explained for common transformations of functional groups like alcohol oxidation and ester synthesis.
The introduction of Kreb Cycle for basic biovhemistry
The introduction of Kreb Cycle for basic biovhemistry
Organic mechanisms
The document summarizes various organic reaction mechanisms including:
1) Free radical substitution, electrophilic addition, nucleophilic substitution, elimination, addition-elimination, electrophilic substitution, esterification, alkaline hydrolysis, nucleophilic addition.
2) Specific mechanisms are described for hydration of alkenes, addition polymerization, bromination of alkenes, nucleophilic substitution, elimination, dehydration, esterification.
3) The formation of polymers like polyamides, polyesters through reactions of dibasic acids and diamines or diols are summarized.
IA data based, boiling point estimation for alkane using linear regression
The document discusses using linear regression to model the relationship between boiling point and number of carbons or molecular weight for alkane compounds. It provides boiling point data for compounds with 1 to 10 carbons and evaluates linear, quadratic, and cubic fits to the data. Linear regression is used to estimate boiling points for compounds with more carbons. The best fitting models and data ranges are determined.
Biol101 chp9-pp-pt1-fall10-101123170617-phpapp02
- Location: cytosol and mitochondrion
- Initial reactant: glucose
- Final products: pyruvate (glycolysis), CO2, ATP, NADH, FADH2 (cellular respiration)
- Glycolysis yields 2 ATP and 2 NADH. The citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation together yield approximately 38 ATP.
Atkins Chapter 5.ppt
1. Addition reactions of alkenes include halogenation, halohydrin formation, hydrogenation, hydration, and hydroboration-oxidation.
2. Halogenation involves the addition of halogens such as bromine or chlorine to the double bond following a free radical mechanism.
3. Hydration can occur through acid-catalyzed addition of water, oxymercuration-demercuration which proceeds through a mercurinium ion, or hydroboration-oxidation which gives the opposite regioselectivity of hydration compared to other methods.
IB Chemistry on Organic nomenclature and functional groups.
The document discusses organic functional groups and their naming conventions. It provides the suffixes used to name different classes of organic compounds based on their functional groups, including -ane for alkanes, -ene for alkenes, -yne for alkynes, -ol for alcohols, and -one for ketones. It also gives examples of compound names and formulas for different functional groups like ethane for alkanes and ethene for alkenes.
Hydrogen Production From 3 Feed Stocks W/O Parasitic Loads
Fuel Cells need a hydrogen source, but there is a a lack of existing hydrogen infrastructures. This need for hydrogen available anywhere has lead ETI to develop a rugged, tactical Hydrogen Fuel Reformation System (HFRS) that accepts multiple feedstocks.
Development of an aqueous ammonia-based post-combustion capture technology fo...
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To highlight the research and achievements of Australian researchers, the Global CCS Institute with ANLEC R&D will hold a series of webinars throughout 2016. Each webinar highlights a specific ANLEC R&D research project and the relevant report found on the Institute’s website. The fifth webinar of the series looked at the development of an aqueous ammonia-based post-combustion capture technology for Australian conditions.
CSIRO has been developing aqueous ammonia (NH3)-based post-combustion CO2 capture (PCC) technology for its application under Australian conditions since 2008. Previous pilot-plant trials at Delta Electricity’s Munmorah Power Station demonstrated the technical feasibility of the process and confirmed some of the expected benefits. With further support from the Australian Government and ANLEC R&D, CSIRO has worked closely with universities in Australia and China to develop an advanced aqueous NH3-based CO2 capture technology. The advanced technology incorporates a number of innovative features which significantly improve its economic feasibility. This webinar presented the advancements made from a recently completed project funded by ANLEC R&D, and was presented by Dr Hai Yu and Dr Kangkang Li from CSIRO Energy.Reactions of synthetic importance
The document discusses two important metal hydride reductions - Clemmensen reduction and metal hydride reductions using sodium borohydride and lithium aluminium hydride. Clemmensen reduction involves the reduction of carbonyl groups to hydrocarbons using zinc amalgam and hydrochloric acid. Sodium borohydride is a mild reducing agent that reduces carbonyl groups to secondary alcohols. Lithium aluminium hydride is a strong reducing agent that can reduce a wide range of functional groups such as carbonyls, carboxylic acids, nitriles, and nitro groups to the corresponding alcohols or amines. Both sodium borohydride and lithium aluminium hydride reactions proceed by
Photochemistry of carbony compounds.pptx
- Carbonyl compounds absorb UV light at wavelengths of 280, 195, 170, and 155 nm, with the 280 nm band being important for photochemistry. This absorption corresponds to an n-π* transition.
- Upon absorption of UV light, carbonyl compounds can undergo four types of reactions: α cleavage, β cleavage, hydrogen abstraction, and addition to carbon-carbon multiple bonds. α cleavage (Norrish type I reaction) is the most common.
- In the Norrish type I reaction, absorption of UV light leads to cleavage of the carbonyl carbon-α carbon bond, forming an acyl radical and an alkyl radical. These radicals can then undergo secondary reactions like decarbonylation or hydrogen abstraction.
1 - Carboxylic Acids - 17th Sep.pdf
Carboxylic acids can be prepared through several methods including oxidation of primary alcohols and aldehydes. They contain a carboxyl group consisting of a carbonyl and hydroxyl group. In IUPAC nomenclature, monocarboxylic acids are called alkanoic acids. Carboxylic acids can also be prepared from nitriles, amides, Grignard reagents, and through oxidation of alkylbenzenes and aldehydes.
IB Chemistry on Homologous series and functional groups of organic molecules
- The document provides a tutorial on homologous series and functional groups in organic chemistry.
- Homologous series are classes of compounds that differ by a -CH2- group and have similar chemical properties. Alkanes and alkenes are examples of homologous series.
- Alkanes have the general formula CnH2n+2 and end in -ane. Alkenes have the general formula CnH2n and end in -ene.
- Tables are provided that list common homologous series with their functional groups, suffixes, examples, and molecular formulas.
Open vs. Closed Carbonate System
1) The document discusses open and closed carbon dioxide (CO2) systems and how they differ in their behavior under acid/base titration.
2) In a closed CO2 system, the total dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) remains constant during titration. But in an open CO2 system, the CO2 partial pressure remains constant and DIC increases exponentially with increasing pH.
3) Graphs of speciation versus pH show that in a closed system, carbonate species shift between each other to conserve DIC, while in an open system each species increases independently without conservation of DIC.
IB Chemistry on Homologous series, Functional gp and nomenclature
This document provides a tutorial on organic chemistry nomenclature, functional groups, and homologous series. It includes:
- Definitions of homologous series for alkanes as compounds that differ by CH2 groups, have the same functional group and similar properties, and names ending in -ane.
- Examples of common alkanes from methane to nonane with their IUPAC names, structural formulas, and molecular formulas.
- Information on other functional groups like alkenes and their homologous series with examples.
Citric acid cycle
The citric acid cycle (CAC) is a key metabolic pathway that occurs in the mitochondria of cells. It involves the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to carbon dioxide. During each turn of the cycle, NAD+ and FAD are reduced to NADH and FADH2 to generate energy in the form of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. Overall, the complete oxidation of one acetyl-CoA molecule in the CAC and respiratory chain produces 12 ATP molecules, capturing the energy from nutrients. The cycle plays a central role in cellular respiration and the production of energy.
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IB Chemistry Nucleophilic Substitution, SN1, SN2 and protic solvent
IB Chemistry Nucleophilic Substitution, SN1, SN2 and protic solvent
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IB Chemistry on Homologous series and functional groups of organic molecules
IB Chemistry on Homologous series and functional groups of organic molecules
IB Chemistry on Homologous series, Functional gp and nomenclature
IB Chemistry on Homologous series, Functional gp and nomenclature
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My presentation work (Sample)
This document outlines opportunities for dental practices during times of crisis or downtime. It discusses using the time to provide continuing education and skills training to staff virtually. This allows teams to stay prepared and improves business areas like leadership, systems, marketing and management. The document promotes investing in long-term training programs over government assistance to address issues practices may face upon reopening like lost revenue and turnover. A 12-month virtual dental business training program is presented as an affordable alternative to traditional MBAs or consulting to guide practices.
Teaching in tomorrow’s classrooms
This document discusses teaching in tomorrow's classrooms and presents several key points:
1) Technologies like 3D printing, cloud computing, and biometric eye tracking will shape future classrooms and allow for new teaching methods like interactive multi-touch screens. This will increase test scores, cognitive thinking, and student motivation.
2) The teacher's role will evolve to become a facilitator, researcher, and expert utilizing advanced teaching strategies. The curriculum will become more learner-centered, practical, and specialized.
3) Students in tomorrow's classrooms will be smart, socially connected, collaborative learners in a more integrated global education system. This presents challenges for teachers to develop new skills and ensure ethical and social development
Classroom accountability and self monitoring systems
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CLASSROOM ACCOUNTABILITY AND SELF-MONITORING SYSTEMS
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Provincial education assessment systems play an important role in enhancing quality education at school level. They systematically evaluate student learning, monitor education standards, and identify factors influencing achievement. This helps inform policies and direct teacher efforts to improve performance. Provincial systems in Pakistan aim to assess higher-order skills like critical thinking in addition to knowledge. The assessments provide feedback to detect and address issues facing students and teachers.Development of test items in affective domain in the subject of education psy...
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The document discusses developing test items that assess the affective domain in educational psychology. It defines key terms like test, test item, affective domain, and levels of the affective domain. The affective domain involves measuring feelings, attitudes, and values. The document provides examples of test questions targeting each level of the affective domain, from receiving to characterization. It concludes that teachers must understand the affective domain hierarchy and how to observe the processes and skills within it when assessing students.Use of alternative assessment techniques in enhancing the meaningful learning
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This document discusses alternative assessment techniques for enhancing meaningful learning. It begins by defining assessment and testing, then describes alternative assessment and some common alternative assessment tools like portfolios, interviews, and anecdotal records. Portfolios are discussed in more depth, outlining how they allow students to take responsibility for their own learning and construct their own knowledge. The document contrasts traditional and alternative assessment and lists advantages of alternative assessment, such as assessing a wider range of skills. It concludes that alternative assessment techniques can enhance meaningful learning by assessing students' strengths and weaknesses.Journals registered with thomson reuters Shared By Abdul Qahar Buneri Abdul W...
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This document lists 57 journals registered with Thomson Reuters and their respective impact factors. The impact factors range from 0.125 to 5.895. Several Pakistani journals are included, such as Pakistan Journal of Zoology, Pakistan Veterinary Journal, and Pakistan Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. The journal with the highest impact factor on the list is Academic Medicine, with a factor of 5.895.Mammalogy practical Edited and Shared By Abdul Qahar Buneri Abdul Wali Khan U...
Mammalogy practical Edited and Shared By Abdul Qahar Buneri Abdul Wali Khan U...Abdul Qahar {{Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan}} (Buner Campus)
This document lists the scientific names of various animals. It includes mammals from different groups like dugongs, armadillos, bats, anteaters, elephants, rodents, marsupials, and more. Each line contains one or two related species alongside their scientific names or classifications. Mammalogy Practical (Msc Zoology) Shared by Abdul Qahar Buneri Abdul Wali kh...
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This document lists three animals - Cat, Tiger, and Grey Wolf - but provides no further details about these animals or any other context. It consists of a list of three animals followed by six blank lines.Order macroscelidea Shared By Abdul Qahar Buneri AWKUM BUner Campus
Order macroscelidea Shared By Abdul Qahar Buneri AWKUM BUner CampusAbdul Qahar {{Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan}} (Buner Campus)
Elephant shrews are small, insectivorous mammals found in Africa. They resemble rodents but have elongated snouts and scaly tails. Their sizes vary from 10-30 cm long and they weigh 50g to over 500g. They are insectivores, using their long noses to find prey like insects and their tongues to flick food into their mouths. Some eat small plants. The short-eared elephant shrew lives in southern Africa and inhabits desert and semi-desert areas, burrowing in sand. They breed in warm seasons, with females having multiple pregnancies. Elephant shrews have economic importance by controlling pest populations and being used for research and education.Order sirenia Shared By Abdul Qahar Buneri AWKUM BUner Campus
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This document provides information about the Order Sirenia, which includes manatees and dugongs. It details their scientific classification, physical characteristics like flippers and flattened tails, herbivorous diet of eating sea grasses and plants, and aquatic marine habitat. Dugongs in particular can live over 70 years, males compete for mates through behavioral displays, and while they provide ecotourism value alive, their meat and tusks can be sold after death, stimulating some local economies.Order scadentia... Shared By Abdul Qahar Buneri AWKUM BUner Campus
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- The document discusses several species of treeshrews, including the common treeshrew, pen-tailed treeshrew, Mindanao treeshrew, and large treeshrew. It describes their habitat, physical characteristics, diet, reproduction, and conservation status. The treeshrews discussed are small mammals found in Southeast Asia and the Philippines that eat insects, small animals, fruits and seeds. They live in family groups and face threats from habitat loss and hunting.Order rodentai Shared By Abdul Qahar Buneri AWKUM BUner Campus
Order rodentai Shared By Abdul Qahar Buneri AWKUM BUner CampusAbdul Qahar {{Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan}} (Buner Campus)
Rodents make up the largest order of mammals, with over 40% of mammalian species belonging to the order Rodentia. They are found on all continents except Antarctica and have a wide range of sizes, from the tiny African pygmy mouse at only 6 cm long to the large capybara that can weigh up to 91 kg. Rodents have a single pair of upper and lower incisors followed by a gap and then molars or premolars, and they lack canines. They use their incisors to cut wood and bite predators as most rodents eat seeds or plants.Order proboscidea Shared By Abdul Qahar Buneri AWKUM BUner Campus
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Proboscidea is an order of mammals that includes elephants. There are two living species: the African elephant (Loxodonta africanus) and the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Elephants have a trunk used for feeding, drinking, and manipulating objects. They live long lives in complex social groups led by mature females. Their skeleton and teeth are adapted for their herbivorous diet.Order pilosa Shared By Abdul Qahar Buneri AWKUM BUner Campus
Order pilosa Shared By Abdul Qahar Buneri AWKUM BUner CampusAbdul Qahar {{Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan}} (Buner Campus)
Pilosa are a mammalian order that includes anteaters and sloths. They are found only in Central and South America today. Anteaters have specialized physical traits for eating ants and termites like long snouts, tongues and claws for digging. Sloths live in trees and move slowly. They have claws for hanging upside down and digesting leaves slowly with low metabolic rates. A study found sloths maintain near water balance and their low energy diets provide just enough energy to sustain their slow lifestyles with low and variable body temperatures. Pilosa have evolved specialized traits and behaviors for their unique diets and environments.Order pholidota
Pangolins, also known as scaly anteaters, are mammals belonging to the order Pholidota. There are eight species of pangolins found in Africa and Asia. Pangolins have protective coats of overlapping scales covering their bodies and limbs, and can curl up into a ball to protect their undersides. They use their long claws to dig for ants and termites, their primary food source. Pangolins face threats from hunting for their meat and scales, which are used for medicinal purposes in some areas.
Order perissodactyla
The document discusses the order Perissodactyla, which includes three families: Equidae (horses, zebras, asses), Tapiridae (tapirs), and Rhinocerotidae (rhinoceroses). Perissodactyls are odd-toed ungulates that distribute their weight on their central digits. They have teeth adapted for grinding plants and large colons with microbes to digest cellulose. Key characteristics include hooved feet and grazing behavior. The three families differ in number of toes, skull shape, teeth structure, and habitat but are all considered threatened.
Order cingulata
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Order chiroptera
This document provides information about the order Chiroptera (bats). It discusses their classification in the animal kingdom, anatomy featuring elongated arm and hand bones to support wings, roles in pest control and plant pollination/seed dispersal, worldwide distribution with 17 families and over 800 species, and characteristics of the two suborders - Megachiroptera (flying foxes) and Microchiroptera (most species worldwide). Key facts are given on several common bat species in North America.
0rder catariodactyla
The order Cetartiodactyla includes even-toed ungulates like cattle, pigs, camels, and cetaceans like whales and dolphins. They are found worldwide and inhabit a wide range of terrestrial and aquatic habitats. Cetartiodactyls display diverse behaviors and characteristics, ranging from social herbivores to apex marine predators. Many species are economically and culturally significant to humans as sources of food, materials, and tourism, though some can negatively impact agriculture or spread disease.
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Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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