Second-largest phylum in number of species- over 100,000 described.
Ecologically widespread- marine, freshwater, terrestrial (gastropods very successful on land)
Variety of body plans (therefore, many classes within the phylum)
Variety in body size- from ~1 mm to ~18 m (60 feet). 80% are under 5 cm, but many are large and therefore significant as food for man.
There are main 5 classes of living echinoderms:
crinoids (sea lilies and feather stars); asteroids (STARFISH); ophiuroids (brittle stars); echinoids (SEA URCHINS, etc); and holothuroids (sea cucumbers).
Echinoderms have been well preserved as FOSSILS; all existing classes and several others now extinct were present in the Ordovician (505-438 million years ago). They may have originated in the Precambrian (over 570 million years ago).
Common name : sea lilies, Sea Stars(STARFISH), sea urchins, sea cucumbers, and brittle stars.
Habitat
Echinoderms occupy all habitats including coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass and soft-bottom areas.
Except for a few species which inhabit brackish waters, all echinoderms are benthic organisms found in marine environments. Echinoderms inhabit depths ranging from shallow waters at tide lines to the deep sea.(Barnes, 1987; Brusca and Brusca, 2003; University of Alabama Center for Communication and Educational Technology, 2000; Waggoner, 1999)
Habitat Regions
• temperate
• tropical
• polar
• saltwater or marine
Aquatic Biomes
• brackish water
Other Habitat Features
• intertidal or littoral
GeoGraphy and eco-system
Geographic Range
Mainly a marine group, echinoderms are found in all the oceans. (Brusca and Brusca, 2003)
BIOGEOGRAPHIC REGIONS
• arctic ocean
• indian ocean
• atlantic ocean
• pacific ocean
• mediterranean sea
Eco-system
Sea urchins are among the main herbivores on reefs and there is usually a fine balance between the urchins and the kelp and other algae on which they graze. A diminution of the numbers of predators (otters, lobsters and fish) can result in an increase in urchin numbers causing overgrazing of kelp forests with the result that an alga-denuded "urchin barren" forms.
Work cited:
Lawrence, J. M. (1975). "On the relationships between marine plants and sea urchins". Oceanographic Marine Biological Annual Review 13: 213–286.
Ecosystem Roles
Echinoderms are usually intricate parts of their ecosystems. Many asteroids are keystone species. Sea urchins, if not controlled by predators, may overgraze their habitat. Asteroids have several commensals, including polychaetes that feed on leftovers from the sea star's prey items. (Barnes, 1987; Brusca and Brusca, 2003)
Ecosystem Impact: keystone species
In this presentation, Phylum Cnidaria, Coelenterata is described. After watching this you will learn the characteristics of Phylum Cnidaria, Coelenterata, The Body Wall and Nematocysts, Alternation of Generations, Maintenance of Functions, Reproduction, Class Hydrozoa, Class Staurozoa, Class Scyphozoa, Class Cubozoa, Class Anthozoa, locomotion, Digestion, Nutrition,Exchanges with the Environment, Nervous and Sensory Functions, Reproduction and Development, cnidocytes, alternation of generations, polyps, medusa, dactylozooids gastrozooid, gonozoid, obelia, aurelia Jelly fish, coral reef, Hydra, Gonionemus, siphonophora, example and taxonomy of Phylum Cnidaria. It is part of BS Zoology Course Animal diversity.
Porifera is a phylum of primitive invertebrate animals comprising the sponges and having a cellular grade of construction without true tissue or organ formation but with the body permeated by canals and chambers through which a current of water flows and passes in its course through one or more cavities lined with choanocytes.
There are main 5 classes of living echinoderms:
crinoids (sea lilies and feather stars); asteroids (STARFISH); ophiuroids (brittle stars); echinoids (SEA URCHINS, etc); and holothuroids (sea cucumbers).
Echinoderms have been well preserved as FOSSILS; all existing classes and several others now extinct were present in the Ordovician (505-438 million years ago). They may have originated in the Precambrian (over 570 million years ago).
Common name : sea lilies, Sea Stars(STARFISH), sea urchins, sea cucumbers, and brittle stars.
Habitat
Echinoderms occupy all habitats including coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass and soft-bottom areas.
Except for a few species which inhabit brackish waters, all echinoderms are benthic organisms found in marine environments. Echinoderms inhabit depths ranging from shallow waters at tide lines to the deep sea.(Barnes, 1987; Brusca and Brusca, 2003; University of Alabama Center for Communication and Educational Technology, 2000; Waggoner, 1999)
Habitat Regions
• temperate
• tropical
• polar
• saltwater or marine
Aquatic Biomes
• brackish water
Other Habitat Features
• intertidal or littoral
GeoGraphy and eco-system
Geographic Range
Mainly a marine group, echinoderms are found in all the oceans. (Brusca and Brusca, 2003)
BIOGEOGRAPHIC REGIONS
• arctic ocean
• indian ocean
• atlantic ocean
• pacific ocean
• mediterranean sea
Eco-system
Sea urchins are among the main herbivores on reefs and there is usually a fine balance between the urchins and the kelp and other algae on which they graze. A diminution of the numbers of predators (otters, lobsters and fish) can result in an increase in urchin numbers causing overgrazing of kelp forests with the result that an alga-denuded "urchin barren" forms.
Work cited:
Lawrence, J. M. (1975). "On the relationships between marine plants and sea urchins". Oceanographic Marine Biological Annual Review 13: 213–286.
Ecosystem Roles
Echinoderms are usually intricate parts of their ecosystems. Many asteroids are keystone species. Sea urchins, if not controlled by predators, may overgraze their habitat. Asteroids have several commensals, including polychaetes that feed on leftovers from the sea star's prey items. (Barnes, 1987; Brusca and Brusca, 2003)
Ecosystem Impact: keystone species
In this presentation, Phylum Cnidaria, Coelenterata is described. After watching this you will learn the characteristics of Phylum Cnidaria, Coelenterata, The Body Wall and Nematocysts, Alternation of Generations, Maintenance of Functions, Reproduction, Class Hydrozoa, Class Staurozoa, Class Scyphozoa, Class Cubozoa, Class Anthozoa, locomotion, Digestion, Nutrition,Exchanges with the Environment, Nervous and Sensory Functions, Reproduction and Development, cnidocytes, alternation of generations, polyps, medusa, dactylozooids gastrozooid, gonozoid, obelia, aurelia Jelly fish, coral reef, Hydra, Gonionemus, siphonophora, example and taxonomy of Phylum Cnidaria. It is part of BS Zoology Course Animal diversity.
Porifera is a phylum of primitive invertebrate animals comprising the sponges and having a cellular grade of construction without true tissue or organ formation but with the body permeated by canals and chambers through which a current of water flows and passes in its course through one or more cavities lined with choanocytes.
Cnidaria is a phylum containing over 9,000 species found only in aquatic and mostly marine environments. All cnidarians have radial symmetrical. There are two major body forms among the Cnidaria - the polyp and the medusa. Sea anemones and corals have the polyp form, while jellyfish are typical medusae.
a cold-blooded vertebrate animal of a class that comprises the frogs, toads, newts, and salamanders. They are distinguished by having an aquatic gill-breathing larval stage followed (typically) by a terrestrial lung-breathing adult stage.
Sponges,are pore bearing,multicellular,diploblastic animals that belong to phylum Porifera
Body of all sponges is perforated by large number of pores called ostia through which water enters Inside body and flows through a system of criss-crossing canals known as canal system
Three main types of canal systems in the order of increasing complexity are Asconoid, Syconoid and Leuconoid type.
Phylum Mollusca-my report..
sorry for some overlapping of texts... i was not able to edit it..it is actually because of the animations that i put it..... i just uploaded it directly :)
It discusses basic information regarding a hemichordate animal called Balanoglossus or Acorn worm, which is also a good connecting link between the non-chordates and chordates.
The excretory products of the sponges- ammonia and other nitrogen containing substances.
Excretion occurs through both the oscula and the surface of the sponge.
Cnidaria is a phylum containing over 9,000 species found only in aquatic and mostly marine environments. All cnidarians have radial symmetrical. There are two major body forms among the Cnidaria - the polyp and the medusa. Sea anemones and corals have the polyp form, while jellyfish are typical medusae.
a cold-blooded vertebrate animal of a class that comprises the frogs, toads, newts, and salamanders. They are distinguished by having an aquatic gill-breathing larval stage followed (typically) by a terrestrial lung-breathing adult stage.
Sponges,are pore bearing,multicellular,diploblastic animals that belong to phylum Porifera
Body of all sponges is perforated by large number of pores called ostia through which water enters Inside body and flows through a system of criss-crossing canals known as canal system
Three main types of canal systems in the order of increasing complexity are Asconoid, Syconoid and Leuconoid type.
Phylum Mollusca-my report..
sorry for some overlapping of texts... i was not able to edit it..it is actually because of the animations that i put it..... i just uploaded it directly :)
It discusses basic information regarding a hemichordate animal called Balanoglossus or Acorn worm, which is also a good connecting link between the non-chordates and chordates.
The excretory products of the sponges- ammonia and other nitrogen containing substances.
Excretion occurs through both the oscula and the surface of the sponge.
Mollusca of India and need for conservationAshish sahu
Mollusca is the second-largest phylum of invertebrate animals after the Arthropoda. The members are known as molluscs or mollusks. Around 85,000 extant species of molluscs are recognized. The number of fossil species is estimated between 60,000 and 100,000 additional species
The analysis of all of the significant processes that formed a basin and deformed its sedimentary fill from basin-scale processes (e.g., plate tectonics)
to centimeter-scale processes (e.g., fracturing)
Seismic waves are the waves of energy caused by the sudden breaking of rock within the earth or an explosion.
Response of material to the arrival of energy fronts released by rupture.
Energy that travels through the earth and is recorded on seismographs.
A fossil is the preserved remains of a once-living organism.
Fossils give clues about organisms that lived long ago. They help to show that evolution has occurred.
They also provide evidence about how Earth’s surface has changed over time.
Fossils help scientists understand what past environments may have been like.
A fossil is an impression, cast,
original material or track of any animal or plant that is preserved in rock after the original organic material is transformed or removed.
A synthetic gemstone is identical to a natural gemstone in almost every way.This includes the same basic crystal structure, refractive index, specific gravity, chemical composition, colors, and other characteristics. Since the same gemological tests are used for stone identification on both natural and synthetic gems, it is sometimes even possible for a gemologist to be puzzled as to whether or not a stone is natural or synthetic. When this occurs, the best course of action is to send the stone to an accredited gem laboratory, like the Gemological Institute of America. They can positively determin ewhether a stone is synthetic or naturally occuring. Only minor internal characteristics allow separation of a synthetic gemstone from a natural gemston
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...
Mollusca
1. • Second-largest phylum in number of
species- over 100,000 described.
• Ecologically widespread- marine,
freshwater, terrestrial (gastropods
very successful on land)
• Variety of body plans (therefore,
many classes within the phylum)
• Variety in body size- from ~1 mm to
~18 m (60 feet). 80% are under 5
cm, but many are large and therefore
significant as food for man.
Phylum Mollusca
4. Mollusk characteristics
• Ciliated body surface
• Calcareous shell- composed of three
primary layers- outer periostracum, middle
prismatic layer (columnar crystals of
calcite) and inner nacre (flat crystals of
calcite)
• Mantle- dorsal surface of body wall,
modified to secrete shell
5. More mollusk characteristics
• Radula- a rasping “tongue” with chitin
teeth, sometimes also chitinous jaws
• Ctenidia- ciliated gills for respiratory
gas exchange, usually located in a
mantle cavity
• Open circulatory system (hemocoel)-
coelom is reduced
6. • ~800 species, all marine, many intertidal
• Shell is distinctive- 8 overlapping plates
imbedded partly or entirely in tough “girdle”.
• Mantle space extends around perimeter of
animal (not just posterior).
• Ctenidia are lateral and multiple.
• Very conservative class.
Fossils date to mid/late Cambrian (500 my).
Class Polyplacophora (chitons)
15. 15
Zebra Mussel
• Environmental Pest
• Ballast water of ships
from Europe in 1986
• Attack be secreting
adhesive byssal threads
– Each other
– Other mussels
– Man made objects
• Pipes, plumbing
24. • Originally described from fossils- thought
to be extinct since Devonian (350 mya)
• first live specimens recovered in 1952
from 3,600 m depth
• Primitive class, most similar to
gastropods, chitons
• Organ systems show metamerism, similar
to annelids and arthropods
Class Monoplacophora (“single shell carriers”)
25. • snails, slugs, nudibranchs, limpets, cowrys,
abalones, etc.
• By far the largest and most diverse molluscan
class- over 80% of mollusc species are gastropods
• Marine benthic, pelagic, freshwater benthic,
terrestrial (mesic & xeric)
• Grazers or predators
• Prominent head, with well-developed sensory
structures (second only to cephalopods)
Class Gastropoda (“belly-foot”)
26. Gastropod shell
Basically a cone, straight or coiled, with new shell
deposited at the margin of the open end during growth
New growth
limpets snails
29. Gastropoda,
Prosobranchia,
Mesogastropoda
• Example- conchs (Strombus ~50
species)
• The queen conch (Strombus
gigas) herbivorous- it is common
in the Caribbean and is harvested
for its meat and shell.
• This species is economically
important and of conservation
concern due to overharvesting and
pollution
35. Cone snails have conotoxins- unique
venom strategy.
Many different small peptides target different
receptors and enzymes. One species may have
over 100 different peptides.
Conotoxins have exceptionally high affinity for
receptors and a very high target specificity.
Great interest in these peptides as pharmacological
agents for research and for drug use
37. • Bubble snails (cephalaspids)
• Sea slugs
• Nudibranchs: (dorids, aeolids) most are
carnivorous, feed on cnidarians
• Sacoglossans: most are herbivorous- many
adopt chloroplasts
• Pteropods: (thecosomes, gymnosomes)
pelagic, foot modified into winglike lobes
• Sea Hares: (anaspids) important in neurobiology
Subclass Opisthobranchia (gills-behind)
some major groups by common name
38. Bubble shells (Order Cephalaspida)
Most are aeolian carnivores on gastropods
and annelids
39. Nudibranchs (Order Nudibranchia)
Shell, mantle cavity and ctenida are gone
Possess cerata (singular = ceras) dorsal projections of
the body wall and hemocoel that act as secondary gills
Most are carnivorous and feed largely on cnidarian
polyps.
There are two suborders-
Doridina (dorids) and Aeolidina (aeolids).
Nudibranchs are some of the most incredibly colorful
animals on earth
43. Borrowed weapons
Aeolids feed on cnidarians and store the functional
nematocysts at the tips of their cerata in cnidosacs
Each ceras contains a branch of the digestive gland.
A duct connects the cnidosac to the digestive gland.
Stained section of cnidosac showing
nematocysts at tip
Digestive gland
cnidosac
44. Saccoglossan sea slugs-
Shell reduced or absent
most saccoglossans are herbivores
that suck plant cytoplasm- some can
hijack chloroplasts
45. Left: sacoglossan Placida showing network of ducts containing
green chloroplasts from its algal food.
Right: aeolid nudibranch Pteraeolidia "farms" colonies of
brown single-celled algae (zooxanthellae) in its cerata (stolen
from cnidarian prey).
Solar-powered Opisthobranchs
46. Mimicry among dorid nudibranchs and polyclad
flatworms- can you tell which is which?