The document discusses error propagation in physics measurements and calculations. It provides formulas for calculating the uncertainty (error) when adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing measurements. The key points are: 1) When adding or subtracting measurements, the total uncertainty is the square root of the sum of the individual measurement uncertainties squared. 2) When multiplying or dividing measurements, the total uncertainty is calculated by adding the individual relative uncertainties squared. 3) For measurements raised to a power, the relative uncertainty is equal to the relative uncertainty of the measurement itself multiplied by the power.

1. Error Propagation
The analysis of uncertainties (errors) in measurements and calculations is essential in the
physics laboratory. For example, suppose you measure the length of a long rod by
making three measurement x = xbest ± ∆x, y = ybest ± ∆y, and z = zbest ± ∆z. Each of these
measurements has its own uncertainty ∆x, ∆y, and ∆z respectively. What is the
uncertainty in the length of the rod L = x + y + z? When we add the measurements do the
uncertainties ∆x, ∆y, ∆z cancel, add, or remain the same? Likewise , suppose we
measure the dimensions b = bbest ± ∆b, h = hbest ± ∆h, and w = wbest ± ∆w of a block.
Again, each of these measurements has its own uncertainty ∆b, ∆h, and ∆w respectively.
What is the uncertainty in the volume of the block V = bhw? Do the uncertainties add,
cancel, or remain the same when we calculate the volume? In order for us to determine
what happens to the uncertainty (error) in the length of the rod or volume of the block we
must analyze how the error (uncertainty) propagates when we do the calculation. In
error analysis we refer to this as error propagation.
There is an error propagation formula that is used for calculating uncertainties when
adding or subtracting measurements with uncertainties and a different error propagation
formula for calculating uncertainties when multiplying or dividing measurements with
uncertainties. Let’s first look at the formula for adding or subtracting measurements with
uncertainties.
Adding or Subtracting Measurements with Uncertainties.
Suppose you make two measurements,
x = xbest ± ∆x
y = ybest ± ∆y
What is the uncertainty in the quantity q = x + y or q = x – y?
To obtain the uncertainty we will find the lowest and highest probable value of q = x + y.
Note that we would like to state q in the standard form of q = qbest ± ∆q where
qbest = xbest + ybest.
(highest probable value of q = x + y):
(xbest+ ∆x) + (ybest + ∆y) = (xbest+ ybest) + (∆x +∆y) = qbest + ∆q
(lowest probable value of q = x + y):
(xbest- ∆x) + (ybest - ∆y) = (xbest+ ybest) - (∆x +∆y) = qbest – ∆q
Thus, we that
∆q = ∆x + ∆y
is the uncertainty in q = x + y. A similar result applies if we needed to obtain the
uncertainty in the difference q = x – y. If we had added or subtracted more than two
1

2. measurements x, y, ......, z each with its own uncertainty ∆x, ∆y, ......... , ∆z respectively
, the result would be
∆q = ∆x + ∆y + ......... + ∆z
Now, if the uncertainties ∆x, ∆y, ........., ∆z are random and independent, the result is
∆q = (∆x) 2 + (∆y ) 2 + ......... + (∆z ) 2
Ex. x = 3.52 cm ± 0.05 cm
y = 2.35 cm ± 0.04 cm
Calculate q = x + y
We would like to state q in the standard form of q = qbest ± ∆q
xbest = 3.52cm, ∆x = 0.05cm
ybest = 2.35cm, ∆y = 0.04cm
qbest = xbest + ybest = 3.52cm + 2.35cm = 5.87cm
∆q = (∆x) 2 + (∆y ) 2 = (0.05)2 + (0.04) 2 = 0.06cm
q = 5.87cm ± 0.06cm
Multiplying or Dividing Measurements with Uncertainties
Suppose you make two measurements,
x = xbest ± ∆x
y = ybest ± ∆y
What is the uncertainty in the quantity q = xy or q = x/y?
To obtain the uncertainty we will find the highest and lowest probable value of q = xy.
The result will be the same if we consider q = x/y. Again we would like to state q in the
standard form of q = qbest ± ∆q where now qbest = xbest ybest.
(highest probable value of q = xy):
(xbest+ ∆x)(ybest + ∆y) = xbestybest + xbest ∆y +∆x ybest + ∆x ∆y = qbest + ∆q
= xbestybest + (xbest ∆y + ∆x ybest) = qbest + ∆q
(lowest probable value of q = xy):
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3. (xbest- ∆x)(ybest - ∆y) = xbestybest - xbest ∆y - ∆x ybest + ∆x ∆y = qbest – ∆q
= xbestybest – (xbest ∆y + ∆x ybest) = qbest – ∆q
Since the uncertainties ∆x and ∆y are assumed to be small, then the product ∆x ∆y ≈ 0.
Thus, we see that ∆q = xbest ∆y +∆x ybest in either case. Dividing by xbestybest gives
∆q x ∆y y ∆x
= best + best
xbest y best xbest y best xbest y best
∆q ∆y ∆x
= +
qbest y best x best
Again, a similar result applies if we needed to obtain the uncertainty in the division of
q = x/y. If we had multiplied or divided more than two measurements x, y, ......, z each
with its own uncertainty ∆x, ∆y, ......... , ∆z respectively, the result would be
∆q ∆y ∆x ∆z
= + + ........ +
qbest y best x best z best
Now, if the uncertainties ∆x, ∆y, ........., ∆z are random and independent, the result is
2 2 2
∆q  ∆y   ∆x   ∆z 
= 
y  +
 x  + ........ + 
 z 

qbest  best   best   best 
Ex. x = 49.52cm ± 0.08cm
y = 189.53cm ± 0.05cm
Calculate q = xy
We would like to state q in the standard form of q = qbest ± ∆q
xbest = 49.52cm, ∆x = 0.08cm
ybest = 189.53cm, ∆y = 0.05cm
qbest = xbestybest = (49.52cm)(189.53cm)=9.38553 x 103 cm2
2 2 2
∆q  ∆x   ∆y   0.08cm   0.05cm 

=   +
 y 
 =  49.52cm  +  189.53cm  = 1.63691E − 3
qbest  xbest   best     
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4. ∆q = (1.63691 x 10-3)qbest = (1.63691 x 10-3) (9.38553 x 103 cm2)
∆q = 15.3632cm2 ≈ 20 cm2
q = 9390 cm2 ± 20 cm2
Uncertainty for a Quantity Raised to a Power
If a measurement x has uncertainty ∆x, then the uncertainty in q = xn, is given by the
expression
∆q ∆x
= n
qbest xbest
Ex. Let q = x3 where x = 5.75cm ± 0.08 cm.
Calculate the uncertainty ∆q in the quantity q.
We would like to state q in the standard form of q = qbest ± ∆q
n=3
∆x = 0.08cm
xbest = 5.75cm
qbest = xbest = 190.1cm 3
3
∆q ∆x
= n =
qbest xbest
∆q  0.08cm 
3
= (3) 
190.1cm  5.75cm 
∆q = 7.93cm 3 ≈ 7cm 3
q = 190cm 3 ± 7cm 3
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