Here are the step-by-step workings: (a) The limiting reactant is Zn. Zn has a molar mass of 65.38 g/mol. So 2.00 g of Zn is equal to 0.0306 mol of Zn. CuCl2 has a molar mass of 134.45 g/mol. So 2.50 g of CuCl2 is equal to 0.0186 mol of CuCl2. Zn is the limiting reactant since it is present in the smaller amount of 0.0306 mol. (b) The balanced equation for the reaction is: Zn(s) + CuCl2(aq) → Cu(s) + Zn

1. Law of Conservation of Mass
“We may lay it down as an
incontestable axiom that, in all
the operations of art and nature,
nothing is created; an equal
amount of matter exists both
before and after the experiment.
Upon this principle, the whole art
of performing chemical
experiments depends.”
--Antoine Lavoisier, 1789

2. Chemical Equations
Concise representations of chemical
reactions

3. Anatomy of a Chemical Equation
CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g)

4. Anatomy of a Chemical Equation
CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g)
Reactants appear on the
left side of the equation.

5. Anatomy of a Chemical Equation
CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g)
Products appear on the
right side of the equation.

6. Anatomy of a Chemical Equation
CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g)
The states of the reactants and products
are written in parentheses to the right of
each compound.

7. Anatomy of a Chemical Equation
CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g)
Coefficients are inserted to
balance the equation.

8. Subscripts and Coefficients Give
Different Information
• Subscripts tell the number of atoms of
each element in a molecule

9. Subscripts and Coefficients Give
Different Information
• Subscripts tell the number of atoms of
each element in a molecule
• Coefficients tell the number of
molecules

10. Reaction
Types

11. Combination Reactions
• Two or more
substances
react to form
one product

12. Combination Reactions
• Two or more
substances
react to form
one product
• Examples:

13. Combination Reactions
• Two or more
substances
react to form
one product
• Examples:
N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) → 2 NH3 (g)

14. Combination Reactions
• Two or more
substances
react to form
one product
• Examples:
N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) → 2 NH3 (g)
C3H6 (g) + Br2 (l) → C3H6Br2 (l)

15. Combination Reactions
• Two or more
substances
react to form
one product
• Examples:
N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) → 2 NH3 (g)
C3H6 (g) + Br2 (l) → C3H6Br2 (l)
2 Mg (s) + O2 (g) → 2 MgO (s)

16. 2 Mg (s) + O2 (g) → 2 MgO (s)

17. Decomposition Reactions
• One substance breaks
down into two or more
substances

18. Decomposition Reactions
• One substance breaks
down into two or more
substances
• Examples:

19. Decomposition Reactions
• One substance breaks
down into two or more
substances
• Examples:
CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

20. Decomposition Reactions
• One substance breaks
down into two or more
substances
• Examples:
CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
2 KClO3 (s) → 2 KCl (s) + O2 (g)

21. Decomposition Reactions
• One substance breaks
down into two or more
substances
• Examples:
CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
2 KClO3 (s) → 2 KCl (s) + O2 (g)
2 NaN3 (s) → 2 Na (s) + 3 N2 (g)

22. Combustion Reactions

23. Combustion Reactions
• Rapid reactions that
produce a flame

24. Combustion Reactions
• Rapid reactions that
produce a flame
• Most often involve
hydrocarbons
reacting with oxygen
in the air

25. Combustion Reactions
• Rapid reactions that
produce a flame
• Most often involve
hydrocarbons
reacting with oxygen
in the air
• Examples:

26. Combustion Reactions
• Rapid reactions that
produce a flame
• Most often involve
hydrocarbons
reacting with oxygen
in the air
• Examples:
CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g)

27. Combustion Reactions
• Rapid reactions that
produce a flame
• Most often involve
hydrocarbons
reacting with oxygen
in the air
• Examples:
CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g)
C3H8 (g) + 5 O2 (g) → 3 CO2 (g) + 4 H2O (g)

28. Formula
Weights

29. Formula Weight (FW)

30. Formula Weight (FW)
• Sum of the atomic weights for the
atoms in a chemical formula
• So, the formula weight of calcium
chloride, CaCl2, would be
Ca: 1(40.1 amu)
+ Cl: 2(35.5 amu)
111.1 amu

31. Formula Weight (FW)
• Sum of the atomic weights for the
atoms in a chemical formula
• So, the formula weight of calcium
chloride, CaCl2, would be
Ca: 1(40.1 amu)
+ Cl: 2(35.5 amu)
111.1 amu
• These are generally reported for ionic
compounds

32. Molecular Weight (MW)

33. Molecular Weight (MW)
• Sum of the atomic weights of the atoms
in a molecule

34. Molecular Weight (MW)
• Sum of the atomic weights of the atoms
in a molecule
• For the molecule ethane, C2H6, the
molecular weight would be
C: 2(12.0 amu)
+ H: 6(1.0 amu)
30.0 amu

35. Percent Composition
One can find the percentage of the mass
of a compound that comes from each of
the elements in the compound by using
this equation:
(number of atoms)(atomic weight)
% element = x 100
(FW of the compound)

36. Percent Composition
So the percentage of carbon in ethane
is…
(2)(12.0 amu)
%C =
(30.0 amu)
24.0 amu
= x 100
30.0 amu
= 80.0%

37. Moles

38. Avogadro’s Number

39. Avogadro’s Number
• 6.02 x 1023

40. Avogadro’s Number
• 6.02 x 1023
• 1 mole of 12C has a
mass of 12 g

41. Molar Mass

42. Molar Mass
• By definition, the mass of 1 mol of a
substance (i.e., g/mol)

43. Molar Mass
• By definition, the mass of 1 mol of a
substance (i.e., g/mol)
– The molar mass of an element is the mass
number for the element that we find on the
periodic table

44. Molar Mass
• By definition, the mass of 1 mol of a
substance (i.e., g/mol)
– The molar mass of an element is the mass
number for the element that we find on the
periodic table
– The formula weight (in amu’s) will be the
same number as the molar mass (in g/mol)

45. Using Moles
Moles provide a bridge from the molecular scale
to the real-world scale

46. Mole Relationships

47. Mole Relationships
• One mole of atoms, ions, or molecules contains
Avogadro’s number of those particles

48. Finding
Empirical
Formulas

49. Calculating Empirical Formulas
One can calculate the empirical formula from
the percent composition

50. Calculating Empirical Formulas
The compound para-aminobenzoic acid
(you may have seen it listed as PABA on
your bottle of sunscreen) is composed of
carbon (61.31%), hydrogen (5.14%),
nitrogen (10.21%), and oxygen (23.33%).
Find the empirical formula of PABA.

51. Calculating Empirical Formulas
Assuming 100.00 g of para-aminobenzoic acid,
C: 61.31 g x 1 mol = 5.105 mol C
12.01 g
H: 5.14 g x 1 mol = 5.09 mol H
1.01 g
N: 10.21 g x 1 mol = 0.7288 mol N
14.01 g
O: 23.33 g x 1 mol = 1.456 mol O
16.00 g

52. Calculating Empirical Formulas
Calculate the mole ratio by dividing by the smallest number
of moles:
5.105 mol
C: = 7.005 ≈ 7
0.7288 mol
5.09 mol
H: = 6.984 ≈ 7
0.7288 mol
0.7288 mol
N: = 1.000
0.7288 mol
O: 1.458 mol = 2.001 ≈ 2
0.7288 mol

53. Calculating Empirical Formulas
These are the subscripts for the empirical formula:
C7H7NO2

54. Combustion Analysis

55. Combustion Analysis
• Compounds containing C, H and O are routinely
analyzed through combustion in a chamber like this

56. Combustion Analysis
• Compounds containing C, H and O are routinely
analyzed through combustion in a chamber like this
– C is determined from the mass of CO2 produced

57. Combustion Analysis
• Compounds containing C, H and O are routinely
analyzed through combustion in a chamber like this
– C is determined from the mass of CO2 produced
– H is determined from the mass of H2O produced

58. Combustion Analysis
• Compounds containing C, H and O are routinely
analyzed through combustion in a chamber like this
– C is determined from the mass of CO2 produced
– H is determined from the mass of H2O produced
– O is determined by difference after the C and H have been
determined

59. Elemental Analyses
Compounds
containing other
elements are
analyzed using
methods analogous
to those used for C,
H and O

60. Stoichiometric Calculations
The coefficients in the balanced equation give
the ratio of moles of reactants and products

61. Stoichiometric Calculations
From the mass of
Substance A you can
use the ratio of the
coefficients of A and B
to calculate the mass
of Substance B
formed (if it’s a
product) or used (if it’s
a reactant)

62. Stoichiometric Calculations
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O

63. Stoichiometric Calculations
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O
Starting with 1.00 g of C6H12O6…

64. Stoichiometric Calculations
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O
Starting with 1.00 g of C6H12O6…
we calculate the moles of C6H12O6…

65. Stoichiometric Calculations
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O
Starting with 1.00 g of C6H12O6…
we calculate the moles of C6H12O6…
use the coefficients to find the moles of H2O…

66. Stoichiometric Calculations
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O
Starting with 1.00 g of C6H12O6…
we calculate the moles of C6H12O6…
use the coefficients to find the moles of H2O…
and then turn the moles of water to grams

67. SAMPLE EXERCISE 3.16 continued
PRACTICE EXERCISE
The decomposition of KClO3 is commonly
used to prepare small amounts of O2 in the
laboratory:
How many grams of O2 can be prepared
from 4.50 g of KClO3?

68. SAMPLE EXERCISE 3.16 continued
PRACTICE EXERCISE
The decomposition of KClO3 is commonly
used to prepare small amounts of O2 in the
laboratory:
How many grams of O2 can be prepared
from 4.50 g of KClO3?
Answer:
1.77 g

69. SAMPLE EXERCISE 3.17 continued
PRACTICE EXERCISE
Propane, C3H8, is a common fuel used for cooking and
home heating. What mass of O2 is consumed in the
combustion of 1.00 g of propane?

70. SAMPLE EXERCISE 3.17 continued
PRACTICE EXERCISE
Propane, C3H8, is a common fuel used for cooking and
home heating. What mass of O2 is consumed in the
combustion of 1.00 g of propane?
Answers:
3.64 g

71. Limiting
Reactants

72. How Many Cookies Can I Make?

73. How Many Cookies Can I Make?
• You can make cookies
until you run out of one
of the ingredients

74. How Many Cookies Can I Make?
• You can make cookies
until you run out of one
of the ingredients
• Once this family runs
out of sugar, they will
stop making cookies (at
least any cookies you
would want to eat)

75. How Many Cookies Can I Make?
• In this example the
sugar would be the
limiting reactant,
because it will limit the
amount of cookies you
can make

76. Limiting Reactants
The limiting reactant
is the reactant
present in the
smallest
stoichiometric
amount

77. Limiting Reactants
• The limiting reactant is the reactant present in
the smallest stoichiometric amount
– In other words, it’s the reactant you’ll run out of first (in
this case, the H2)

78. Limiting Reactants
In the example below, the O2 would be the
excess reagent

79. PRACTICE EXERCISE
Consider the reaction
A mixture of 1.50 mol of Al and 3.00 mol of Cl2 is
allowed to react.
(a) Which is the limiting reactant?
(b) How many moles of AlCl3 are formed?
(c) How many moles of the excess reactant remain
at the end of the reaction?

80. PRACTICE EXERCISE
Consider the reaction
A mixture of 1.50 mol of Al and 3.00 mol of Cl2 is
allowed to react.
(a) Which is the limiting reactant?
(b) How many moles of AlCl3 are formed?
(c) How many moles of the excess reactant remain
at the end of the reaction?
Answers:
(a) Al, (b) 1.50 mol, (c) 0.75 mol Cl2

81. PRACTICE EXERCISE
A strip of zinc metal having a mass of 2.00 g is placed
in an aqueous solution containing 2.50 g of silver
nitrate, causing the following reaction to occur:
(a) Which reactant is limiting?
(b) How many grams of Ag will form?
(c) How many grams of Zn(NO3)2 will form?
(d) How many grams of the excess reactant will be
left at the end of the reaction?

82. PRACTICE EXERCISE
A strip of zinc metal having a mass of 2.00 g is placed
in an aqueous solution containing 2.50 g of silver
nitrate, causing the following reaction to occur:
(a) Which reactant is limiting?
(b) How many grams of Ag will form?
(c) How many grams of Zn(NO3)2 will form?
(d) How many grams of the excess reactant will be
left at the end of the reaction?
Answers:
(a) AgNO3, (b) 1.59 g, (c) 1.39 g, (d) 1.52 g Zn

83. Theoretical Yield

84. Theoretical Yield
• The theoretical yield is the amount of
product that can be made

85. Theoretical Yield
• The theoretical yield is the amount of
product that can be made
– In other words it’s the amount of product
possible as calculated through the
stoichiometry problem

86. Theoretical Yield
• The theoretical yield is the amount of
product that can be made
– In other words it’s the amount of product
possible as calculated through the
stoichiometry problem
• This is different from the actual yield,
the amount one actually produces and
measures.

87. Percent Yield
A comparison of the amount actually
obtained to the amount it was possible
to make

88. Percent Yield
A comparison of the amount actually
obtained to the amount it was possible
to make
Actual Yield
Percent Yield = Theoretical Yield x 100

89. PRACTICE EXERCISE
Imagine that you are working on ways to improve the
process by which iron ore containing Fe2O3 is converted
into iron. In your tests you carry out the following
reaction on a small scale:
(a) If you start with 150 g of Fe2O3 as the limiting
reagent, what is the theoretical yield of Fe?
(b) If the actual yield of Fe in your test was 87.9 g,
what was the percent yield?

90. PRACTICE EXERCISE
Imagine that you are working on ways to improve the
process by which iron ore containing Fe2O3 is converted
into iron. In your tests you carry out the following
reaction on a small scale:
(a) If you start with 150 g of Fe2O3 as the limiting
reagent, what is the theoretical yield of Fe?
(b) If the actual yield of Fe in your test was 87.9 g,
what was the percent yield?
Answers:
(a) 105 g Fe, (b) 83.7%