This document provides information about carbohydrates:
- Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and are the most abundant compounds found in nature. They are found naturally in bound form as polysaccharides, glycoproteins, glycolipids, and other complex forms.
- Carbohydrates serve as sources of energy, participate in biosynthesis, and form structural tissues in plants. They also play roles in biological transport, cell recognition, and immune system modulation.
- Monosaccharides can be classified based on the number of carbons and whether they are aldoses or ketoses. Disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides consist of multiple monosaccharide units.
Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides- structure and functionDr. GURPREET SINGH
this presentation describes about the structure of carbohydrates in detail with specific reference to monosaccharides, their classification, structural component and functions
Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides- structure and functionDr. GURPREET SINGH
this presentation describes about the structure of carbohydrates in detail with specific reference to monosaccharides, their classification, structural component and functions
About carbohydrates, its types, physical and chemical properties, isomers and isomeric properties, important carbohydrates, medical use of some carbohydrates.
Food Chemistry is the study of chemical processes and interactions of all biological and non- biological components of foods.
It covers the basic composition, structure and properties of foods and the chemistry changes occurring during processing and utilization.
It also covers the chemistry of water, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, minerals and enzymes
fb.com/careeratfoodscience
How a person is poloshed during his or her life during difficulties and problems. Any problem comes leaves some scratches on one's life which make the person sharp and poloshed in their life.
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Overview on Edible Vaccine: Pros & Cons with Mechanism
Carbohydrates
1. Dr. Daxaben N. Mehta
Principal
Smt. Sadguna C.U.Shah Home Science and
C. U. Shah Arts & Commerce Mahila College,
Wadhwancity, Dist: Surendranagar
Home Science
Carbohydrates
2. Term carbohydrate is derived from the French:
hydrate de carbone
compounds composed of C, H, and O
(CH2O)n when n = 5 then C5H10O5
not all carbohydrates have this empirical
formula: deoxysugars, aminosugars
carbohydrates are the most abundant
compounds found in nature (cellulose: 100
billion tons annually)
Home Science
Carbohydrates
3. • Most carbohydrates are found naturally in
bound form rather than as simple sugars
• Polysaccharides (starch, cellulose, inulin, gums)
• Glycoproteins and proteoglycans (hormones, blood
group substances, antibodies)
• Glycolipids (cerebrosides, gangliosides)
• Glycosides
• Mucopolysaccharides (hyaluronic acid)
• Nucleic acids
Home Science
Carbohydrates
4. • sources of energy
• intermediates in the biosynthesis of other basic
biochemical entities (fats and proteins)
• associated with other entities such as glycosides,
vitamins and antibiotics)
• form structural tissues in plants and in
microorganisms (cellulose, lignin, murein)
• participate in biological transport, cell-cell
recognition, activation of growth factors,
modulation of the immune system
Home Science
Carbohydrates
5. • Monosaccharides (monoses or glycoses)
• Trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses
• Oligosaccharides
• Di, tri, tetra, penta, up to 9 or 10
• Most important are the disaccharides
• Polysaccharides or glycans
• Homo and Heteropolysaccharides
• Complex carbohydrates
Home Science
Carbohydrates
6. • also known as simple sugars
• classified by 1. the number of carbons and
2. whether aldoses or ketoses
• most (99%) are straight chain compounds
• D-glyceraldehyde is the simplest of the
aldoses (aldotriose)
• all other sugars have the ending ose
(glucose, galactose, ribose, lactose, etc…)
Home Science
Carbohydrates
7. • Differences in structures of sugars are
responsible for variations in properties
• Physical Crystalline form;
solubility; rotatory power
• Chemical Reactions
oxidations, reductions, condensations
• Physiological Nutritive value
(human, bacterial); sweetness; absorption
Home Science
Carbohydrates
9. H
C
(H
O
C
OH)n
CH 2 OH
Aldose
C
H
H
H
H
C
OH
C
H
C
OH
CH 2 OH
H
C
OH
Aldotriose
n=1
C
O
H
C
OH
H
C
H
C
O
O
CH 2 OH
Aldotetrose
n=2
H
C
O
H
C
OH
OH
H
C
OH
OH
H
C
OH
H
C
OH
CH 2 OH
Aldopentose
n=3
CH 2 OH
Aldohexose
n=4
Home Science
Carbohydrates
10. CH 2 OH
C
CH 2 OH
O
C
(H
C
CH 2 OH
CH 2 OH
Ketose
C
O
OH)n
CH 2 OH
CH 2 OH
H
C
OH
C
O
CH 2 OH
H
C
OH
C
O
H
C
OH
C
OH
O
CH 2 OH
Ketotriose
Ketotetrose
n=0
n=1
H
CH 2 OH
H
Ketopentose
H
OH
C
OH
n=2
CH 2 OH
Ketohexose
n=3
Home Science
Carbohydrates
12. • Pairs of stereoisomers
• Designated by D- or L- at the start of the
name.
• They are mirror images
that can’t be overlapped.
Home Science
Carbohydrates
16. ald o tetro s es
1 CHO
1CHO
high est n u m b ered
"chira l" ca rb on
2
H
3
H
OH
OH
HO
HO
h ig h est n um b ered
"chira l" ca rb on
H
H
OH
C H 2O H
D -th reose
Home Science
high est nu m b e red
"chira l" ca rb o n
H
L -erythrose
CHO
CHO
HO
3
H
4 C H 2O H
4 CH OH
2
D -erythro se
2
H
HO
OH
H
high est n u m b ered
"chira l" ca rb on
C H 2O H
L-thre ose
Carbohydrates
17. C5, three chiral carbons,
eight stereoisomers
CHO
H
H
OH
HO
H
OH
H
OH
HO
H
OH
H
OH
H
C H 2O H
D -ribose
H
C H 2O H
D -arabinose
Home Science
CHO
CHO
CHO
OH
HO
H
H
HO
H
OH
C H 2O H
D -xylose
Carbohydrates
H
OH
C H 2O H
D -lyxose
18. four chiral carbons, sixteen
stereoisomers
CHO
CHO
CHO
CHO
CHO
CHO
CHO
CHO
H
OH
HO
H
H
OH
HO
H
H
OH
HO
H
H
OH
HO
H
H
OH
H
OH
HO
H
HO
H
H
OH
H
OH
HO
H
HO
H
H
OH
H
OH
H
OH
H
OH
HO
H
HO
H
HO
H
HO
H
H
OH
H
OH
H
OH
H
OH
H
OH
H
OH
H
OH
H
OH
CH 2 OH
D-allose
CH 2 OH
CH 2 OH
CH 2 OH
D-altrose
D- glucose
D-mannose
Home Science
CH 2 OH
D-gulose
CH 2 OH
D-idose
Carbohydrates
CH 2 OH
CH 2 OH
D-galactose
D-talose
20. CH 2 O H
CH 2 O H
CH 2 OH
O
CH 2 OH
hydroxyacetone
CH 2 O H
CH 2 O H
O
O
O
H
OH
H
H
OH
HO
CH 2 O H
OH
HO
H
H
H
OH
CH 2 O H
H
OH
CH 2 OH
D-ribulose
Home Science
Dxylulose
D-fructose
Carbohydrates
O
HO
H
H
OH
H
OH
H
OH
CH 2 O H
D-sedohepuloase
22. • Fisher projection: straight chain
representation
• Haworth projection: simple ring in
perspective
• Conformational representation:
chair and boat configurations
Home Science
Carbohydrates
23. • draw either a six or 5-membered ring
including oxygen as one atom
• most aldohexoses are six-membered
• aldotetroses, aldopentoses,
ketohexoses are 5-membered
O
Home Science
O
Carbohydrates
24. • next number the ring clockwise starting next
to the oxygen
5
O
O
1
4
3
2
1
4
3
2
• if the substituent is to the right in the Fisher
projection, it will be drawn down in the
Haworth projection (Down-Right Rule)
Home Science
Carbohydrates
25. • for D-sugars the highest numbered
carbon (furthest from the carbonyl) is
drawn up. For L-sugars, it is drawn down
• for D-sugars, the OH group at the
anomeric position is drawn down for
and up for β. For L-sugars is up and β is
down
Home Science
Carbohydrates
26. D-glucose can cyclize in two ways forming either furanose
or pyranose structures
Home Science
Carbohydrates
27. 6
CH 2 O H
5
OH
H
1
H
HO
H
HOH 2 C
2
HO
OH
3
4
5
H
OH
H
H OH 2 C H O H H
HO
5
4
3
H OH H
2
CHO
6 CH
5
4
D-glucose
HO
OH
H
1
H
3
H
OH
3
H
6
H
H
H
OH H
HO
Home Science
O
H
OH
4
2O H
H
OH
5
OH
new chiral
center
1
OH
6
H
CH 2 OH
OH
H
6
1
2
3
H
O
H
OH H
4
CHO
6
1
2
O
4
CH 2 O H
5
O
H
OH
HO
3
H
OH
Carbohydrates
H
H
1
2
OH
OH
28. :
Glucose exists in aqueous solution primarily in
the six-membered, pyranose ring form
• Results from intramolecular nucleophilic
addition of the –OH group at C5 to the C1
carbonyl group
Home Science
Carbohydrates
29. :
• The name pyranose is derived from pyran
Pyran is the name of the unsaturated sixmembered cyclic ether
• Pyranose rings have chairlike geometry with axial
and equatorial substituents
Home Science
Carbohydrates
30. The two diastereomers are called anomers and
the hemiacetal carbon atom is referred to as
the anomeric center
Home Science
Carbohydrates
31. D-ribose and other five-carbon
saccharides can form either
furanose or pyranose structures
Home Science
Carbohydrates
33. 1
6
C H 2O H
2
HO
H
H O H 2C
O
3
H
4
6
H O H 2C
HO
H OH
5
4
H O H 2C
1
2
3
C H 2O H
3
H
2
H
OH
H
C H 2O H
HO
4
2
C H 2O H
3
H
OH
1
OH
O
H
5
HO
4
H
C H 2O H
O
OH
H
5
O
H OH H
OH
5
6
1
6
OH
1
H
C H 2O H
2
HO
H
H
6
O
3
4
5
H
OH
H
6
H O H 2C
5
4
3
OH OH H
OH
C H 2O H
2
O
1
C H 2O H
5
H
Home Science
H
O
H
HO
2
HO
3
4
HO
6
OH
H
H OH
6
H
C H 2O H
1
Carbohydrates
4
H
5
O
H
HO
H
HO
OH
C H 2O H
3
OH
2
H
1
34. Chair and boat conformations of a pyranose sugar
2 possible chair conformations
of
Home Science -D-glucose
Carbohydrates
35. • A property exhibited by any
compound whose mirror images
are non-superimposable
• Asymmetric compounds rotate
plane polarized light
Home Science
Carbohydrates
36. Measurement of optical activity in chiral or
asymmetric molecules using plane polarized light
Molecules may be chiral because of certain atoms
or because of chiral axes or chiral planes
Measurement uses an instrument called a
polarimeter (Lippich type)
Rotation is either (+) dextrorotatory or (-)
levorotatory
Home Science
Carbohydrates
39. Magnitude of rotation depends upon:
Nature of the compound
Length of the tube usually expressed in decimeters
Wavelength of the light source employed
Temperature of sample
Concentration of analyte in grams per 100 ml
Home Science
Carbohydrates
42. • consists of reacting the
monosaccharide with phenylhydrazine
• D-fructose and D-mannose give the
same osazone as D-glucose
• seldom used for identification; we
now use HPLC or mass spectrometry
Home Science
Carbohydrates
43. The aldehyde group of an aldose react with phenylhydrazine.
O
H
CH
C NNHC 6 H 5
+ 3C 6 H 5 N HN H 2
(C HOH)n
C NNHC 6 H 5
C H 2 OH
+ C 6 H 5 N H 2 + NH 3 + H 2 O
(CHOH)n
CH 2 OH
phenylosazone
(±½ëÛ)
Home Science
Carbohydrates
44. • Aldoses may be oxidized to 3 types of acids
Aldonic acids: aldehyde group is converted
to a carboxyl group
Uronic acids: aldehyde is left intact and
primary alcohol at the other end is
oxidized to COOH
Saccharic acids (glycaric acids) – oxidation
at both ends of monosaccharide)
Home Science
Carbohydrates
45. • Br2 is a mild oxidant that gives good yields
of aldonic acid products
Home Science
Carbohydrates
46. • Aldoses are oxidized in warm, dilute HNO3
to dicarboxylic acids called aldaric acids
Home Science
Carbohydrates
47. • Enzymatic oxidation at the –CH2OH end of
aldoses yields uronic acids
Home Science
Carbohydrates
48. •
•
•
•
•
either done catalytically or enzymatically
Forms sugar alcohol (alditol)
glucose form sorbitol (glucitol)
mannose forms mannitol
fructose forms a mixture of mannitol and
sorbitol
• glyceraldehyde gives glycerol
Home Science
Carbohydrates
51. • These are monosaccharides which lack one
or more hydroxyl groups on the molecule
• one quite ubiquitous deoxy sugar is 2’deoxy ribose which is the sugar found in
DNA
• 6-deoxy-L-mannose (L-rhamnose) is used
as a fermentative reagent in bacteriology
Home Science
Carbohydrates
56. • Most common are the disaccharides
• Sucrose, lactose, and maltose
• Maltose hydrolyzes to 2 molecules of Dglucose
• Lactose hydrolyzes to a molecule of glucose
and a molecule of galactose
• Sucrose hydrolyzes to a moledule of glucose
and a molecule of fructose
Home Science
Carbohydrates
57. • Malt sugar. Not common in nature except in
germinating grains.
α
(1
CH 2 OH
CH 2 OH
H
O
H
OH
4) linkage.
H
H
H
O
O
OH
H
OH
H
H
OH
H
OH
-D-glucose
Home Science
OH
H
-D-glucose
Carbohydrates
58. • Milk sugar - dimer of -D-galactose and
D-glucose. (1
4)
O
H
H
OH
O
H
O
H
OH
OH
-D-galactose
Home Science
OH
H
H
H
H
H
-
CH 2 OH
CH 2 OH
OH
or
H
OH
-D-glucose
Carbohydrates
59. CH 2 OH
• Table sugar - most
H
common sugar in all
H
OH
plants.
• Sugar cane and beet, OH
H
are up to 20% by
mass sucrose.
CH 2 OH
• Disaccharide of
H
-glucose and
H
-fructose.
(1
2) linkage
Home Science
O
H
H
OH
O
O
OH
Carbohydrates
OH
CH 2 OH
H
61. • most common storage polysaccharide in
plants
• composed of 10 – 30% amylose and
70-90% amylopectin depending on the
source
• the chains are of varying length, having
molecular weights from several
thousands to half a million
Home Science
Carbohydrates
62. • Branched structure due to crosslinks.
O
H
H
OH
H
O
H
H
OH
H
H
H
O
H
H
OH
β(1
H
OH
H
CHOH H
2
OH
H
O
H
H
OH
H
OH
O
H
H
O
CHOH H
2
OH
H
O
H
H
OH
H
OH
CH
2
OH
H
H
OH
H
OH
Carbohydrates
H
H
O
O
6) link age at crosslink
Home Science
O
H
H
O
H
H
O
O
H
H
O
CHOH H
2
OH
O
H
H
OH
O
H
CHOH
2
CHOH
2
CHOH
2
CHOH
2
H
OH
63. • Main sources of starch are rice, corn,
wheat, potatoes and cassava
• Starch is used as an excipient, a binder in
medications to aid the formation of
tablets.
• Industrially it has many applications such
as adhesives, paper making, biofuel,
textiles
Home Science
Carbohydrates
64. • Energy storage of animals.
• Stored in liver and muscles as granules.
• Similar to amylopectin. α(1 6) linkage
O
O
O
O
c
O
O
O
c
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
Home Science
Carbohydrates
65. Amylose and amylopectin are the 2 forms of starch. Amylopectin
is a highly branched structure, with branches occurring every 12
to 30 residues
Home Science
Carbohydrates
66. • These materials provide a thin, viscous, jelly-like coating
to cells. The most abundant form is hyaluronic acid.
CH 2 OH
O
H
O
H
COO
H
CH 2 OH
O
H
O
H
(1
•
3)
COO
H
CH 2 OH
(1
4)
O
H
•
COO
H
O
O
HO
NH
C O
H
H
H
H
H
H
CH 3
OH
H
NH
OH
CH 3
Alternating units
of N-acetylglucosamine and
D-glucuronic acid.
CH 3
OH
Home Science
NH
C O
C O
H
H
H
H
OH
-
HO
O
H
O
O
H
H
H
OH
-
O
O
HO
H
OH
-
Carbohydrates
67. • Bacterial cell walls are composed primarily of an
unbranched polymer of alternating units of Nacetylglucosamine and N-acetylmuramic acid.
CH
2 OH
CH
O
H
H
OH
O
H
H
O
O
2 OH
H
OR
O
H
H
H
H
H
NH
C
CH
O
3
NH
C
CH
O
3
• Peptide crosslinks between the polymer strands provide
extra strength varies based on bacterium.
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Carbohydrates
68. John E McMurry : Organic Chemistry
Garrett & Grisham: Textbook of Biochemistry
Lehninger: Fundamentals of Biochemistry
Morris Hein, Scott Pattison, and Susan Arena:
Introduction to Biochemistry
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Carbohydrates