Carbohydrates are the most abundant biological molecules on Earth. They serve important structural and energy storage roles. Carbohydrates can be monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of monomeric units joined together. Monosaccharides can exist as open-chain or cyclic structures and come in D and L forms that are non-superimposable mirror images called enantiomers. Common monosaccharides include glucose and fructose. Disaccharides join two monosaccharides and examples include sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides and can be homopolysaccharides containing a single sugar or heteropolysaccharides with multiple
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or compounds derived from their hydrolysis.
includes- Definition, classification, examples, enantiomers, epimers, anomers, D and L isomers, ozasone testing, reducing and non reducing sugars, chemical tests and disease.
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or compounds derived from their hydrolysis.
includes- Definition, classification, examples, enantiomers, epimers, anomers, D and L isomers, ozasone testing, reducing and non reducing sugars, chemical tests and disease.
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Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
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TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
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Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
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New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
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Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
2. Carbohydrates
• Most abundant class of biological
molecules on Earth
• Originally produced through CO2
fixation during photosynthesis
3. Roles of Carbohydrates
• Energy storage (glycogen, starch)
• Structural components (cellulose, chitin)
• Cellular recognition
• Components of monomeric unit of DNA
and RNA,
• Glycoconjugates: glycoproteins, glycolipids
4. Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or
ketones, or substances that yield such compounds
on hydrolysis
• Carbohydrates (glycans) have the following basic
composition:
I
(CH2O)n or H - C - OH
I
5. Classification of Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides - simple sugars with multiple OH
groups.
Disaccharides - 2 monosaccharides covalently linked.
Oligosaccharides - a few monosaccharides (upto 10)
covalently linked.
Polysaccharides - polymers consisting of chains of
monosaccharide or disaccharide units.
6. Monosaccharides
Aldoses (e.g., glucose) have
an aldehyde group at one end.
Ketoses (e.g., fructose) have
a keto group, usually at C2.
C
C OH
H
C H
HO
C OH
H
C OH
H
CH2OH
D-glucose
O
H
C H
HO
C OH
H
C OH
H
CH2OH
CH2OH
C O
D-fructose
8. Stereoisomers and Stereochemistry
• Prefixes D- and L- in a monosaccharide name
identify one of two isomeric forms
– These isomers differ in the spatial arrangement of
atoms and are stereoisomers
• Stereochemistry is the study of different spatial
arrangements of atoms
• The stereoisomers D- and L- glyceraldehyde are
non-superimposable mirror image molecules and
are called enantiomers (a subset of stereoisomers)
9. D vs L Designation
D & L designations
are based on the
configuration about
the single asymmetric
C in glyceraldehyde.
The lower
representations are
Fischer Projections.
CHO
C
CH2OH
HO H
CHO
C
CH2OH
H OH
CHO
C
CH2OH
HO H
CHO
C
CH2OH
H OH
L-glyceraldehyde
D-glyceraldehyde
L-glyceraldehyde
D-glyceraldehyde
10. Sugar Nomenclature
For sugars with more
than one chiral center,
D or L refers to the
asymmetric C farthest
from the aldehyde or
keto group.
Most naturally occurring
sugars are D isomers.
O H O H
C C
H – C – OH HO – C – H
HO – C – H H – C – OH
H – C – OH HO – C – H
H – C – OH HO – C – H
CH2OH CH2OH
D-glucose L-glucose
11. D & L sugars are mirror images of one another.
O H O H
C C
H – C – OH HO – C – H
HO – C – H H – C – OH
H – C – OH HO – C – H
H – C – OH HO – C – H
CH2OH CH2OH
D-glucose L-glucose
12. Stereochemistry
•Enantiomers = mirror images
•Pairs of isomers that have opposite configurations at one or more
chiral centers but are NOT mirror images are diastereomers
•Epimers = Two sugars that differ in configuration at only one
chiral center
C
C*
O
C*
C*
C*
CH2OH
H OH
HO H
H OH
H OH
H
C
C*
O
C*
C*
C*
CH2OH
HO H
H OH
HO H
HO H
H
C
C*
O
C*
C*
C*
CH2OH
H OH
HO H
H OH
H OH
H
C
C*
O
C*
C*
C*
CH2OH
HO H
HO H
H OH
H OH
H
C
C*
O
C*
C*
C*
CH2OH
HO H
HO H
H OH
H OH
H
C
C*
O
C*
C*
C*
CH2OH
H OH
HO H
HO H
H OH
H
D-glucose
L-glucose
Enantiomers
D-glucose D-mannose
Epimers
D-mannose D-galactose
Diastereomers
14. Chirality
• A carbon atom that has four different groups
bonded to it is called a chiral carbon atom
• Any molecule containing a chiral carbon can
exist as a pair of enantiomers
• Chirality in glyceraldehyde (the simplest carbohydrate)
is conveyed by a single chiral carbon
15. Monosaccharides are chiral
• Aldoses with 3C or more and
ketoses with 4C or more are chiral
• The number of chiral carbons
present in a ketose is always one
less than the number found in the
same length aldose
• Number of possible stereoisomers =
2n (n = the number of chiral
carbons)
C
C*
O
C*
C*
C*
CH2OH
H OH
HO H
H OH
H OH
H
CH2OH
C
C*
C*
C*
CH2OH
O
HO H
H OH
H OH
D-glucose D-fructose
16. Optical Activity
• Enantiomers are also called optical isomers
• Enantiomers interact with plane polarized
light to rotate the plane of the light in
opposite directions
– This interaction with polarized light is called
optical activity
– Optical activity distinguishes the isomers
– It is measured in a device called a polarimeter
17. Polarized Light
• Normal light vibrates in an infinite number of
directions perpendicular to the direction of travel
– When the light passes through a polarizing filter
(Polaroid sunglasses) only light vibrating in one plane
reaches the other side of the filter
– A polarimeter allows the determination of the specific
rotation of a compound
• Measures its ability to rotate plane-polarized light
20. Molecular Structure and Optical Activity
• When an enantiomer in a solution is placed in the
polarimeter, the plane of rotation of the polarized light is
rotated
– One enantiomer always rotates light in a clockwise (+)
direction
• This is the dextrorotatory isomer
– The other isomer rotates the light in a counterclockwise (-)
direction
• It is the levorotatory isomer
• Under identical conditions, the enantiomers always rotate
light to exactly the same degree, but in opposite directions
21. Hemiacetal & hemiketal formation
An aldehyde can
react with an
alcohol to form
a hemiacetal.
A ketone can
react with an
alcohol to form
a hemiketal.
O C
H
R
OH
O C
R
R'
OH
C
R
R'
O
aldehyde alcohol hemiacetal
ketone alcohol hemiketal
C
H
R
O R'
R' OH
"R OH "R
+
+
These reaction facilitates formation of ring structures
of monosaccharides
22. In aqueous solution, aldotetroses and all
monosaccharides with five or more carbon
atoms in the backbone occur predominantly as
cyclic (ring) structures.
In cyclic structures the carbonyl group has
formed a covalent bond with the oxygen of a
hydroxyl group along the chain.
The formation of these ring structures is the result
of a general reaction hemiacetals or hemiketals
reactions.
23. Cyclic Structures of common
monosaccharide
Haworth projections.
6-member pyranose ring, named after pyran
24. Fructose forms either
a 6-member pyranose ring, by reaction of the C2 keto
group with the OH on C6, or
a 5-member furanose ring, by reaction of the C2 keto
group with the OH on C5.
CH2OH
C O
C H
HO
C OH
H
C OH
H
CH2OH
HOH2C
OH
CH2OH
H
OH H
H HO
O
1
6
5
4
3
2
6
5
4 3
2
1
D-fructose (linear) -D-fructofuranose
25. Cyclization of glucose produces a new asymmetric center at
C1. The hemiacetal (or carbonyl) carbon atom is called the
anomeric carbon. The 2 stereoisomers are called anomers,
& b.
Haworth projections represent the cyclic sugar anomers as:
(OH below the ring)
b (OH above the ring).
H O
OH
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
-D-glucose
OH
H H O
OH
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
H
OH
b-D-glucose
2
3
4
5
6
1 1
6
5
4
3 2
26. The α and β anomers of D-glucose interconvert in
aqueous solution by a process called
mutarotation.
Thus, a solution of α-D-glucose and a solution of
β-D-glucose eventually form identical equilibrium
mixtures having identical optical properties.
This mixture consists of about one-third α-D-
glucose, two-thirds β-D-glucose, and very small
amounts of the linear and five-membered ring
(glucofuranose) forms.
27. Reducing Sugars
• The aldehyde groups of aldoses are oxidized by
Benedict’s reagent, an alkaline copper(II) solution
• The blue color of the reagent fades as reaction occurs
reducing Cu2+ to Cu+ with a red-orange precipitate
forming as Cu2O results
• Test can measure glucose in urine
+ Cu2O (red-orange)
28. Reducing Sugars
• All monosaccharides and the disaccharides
except sucrose are reducing sugars
• Ketoses can isomerize to aldoses and react
D-glucose
CH
C
C
OH
O
H
C OH
H
C
H
H OH
CH2OH
H
O
D-fructose
CH2OH
C
C
O
O
H
C OH
H
C
H
H OH
CH2OH
CH
C
C
OH
O
H
C OH
H
C
H
H OH
CH2OH
O
H
enediol
30. Sugar Phosphates
Involved in catabolism and
anabolism, cellular catabolism it must
first be converted to glucose 6-
phosphate
Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate lies
within the glycolysis metabolic
pathway
32. Amino Sugars
a prominent precursor in the
biochemical synthesis of
glycosylated proteins and
lipid. It is part of the structure of
the polysaccharides, chitosan,
and chitin.
It is a constituent of some
glycoprotein hormones
such as follicle-
stimulating hormone and
luteinizing hormone
34. Sugar derivatives
Acidic sugar, found in complex glycans on
mucins and glycoproteins found at the cell
membrane
Sulfoquinovose, sulfosugar.
Component of sulfolipid (SQDG)
sulfoquinovosyl diacylglycerides
35. Disaccharides
Disaccharides (such as maltose, lactose, and
sucrose) consist of two monosaccharides
joined covalently by an O-glycosidic bond,
which is formed when a hydroxyl group of
one sugar reacts with the anomeric carbon of
the other.
36. Maltose
• Disaccharide of two glucose molecules.
• Has a α -1,4-glycosidic bond (between two glucoses).
• Is obtained from the breakdown of starches.
• Is used in cereals and candies.
• Is a reducing sugar (carbon 1 can open to give a free
aldehyde to oxidize).
b
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
O
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
1 4
-1,4-glycosidic
bond
b- maltose
α-glucose
OH
OH
OH
OH
CH2OH
O
OH
OH
OH
OH
CH2OH
O
+
1 4
α-glucose
37. Maltose
Anomeric carbon (C1) of the second glucose
molecule, which is not involved in a
glycosidic bond, could be either an α- or β-
anomer depending on the bond direction of
the attached hydroxyl group, resulting in
either α-maltose or β-maltose
38. • Disaccharide of galactose and glucose.
• Has a β-1,4-glycosidic bond (between β-galactose and glucose).
• with the glucose moiety being potentially free (i.e., a reducing
sugar) and existing as either an α- or β-anomer.
• Is found in milk and milk products (almost no sweet).
• Is a reducing sugar (carbon 1 can open to give a free aldehyde to
oxidize).
b
Lactose
b-lactose
39. • Is found in table sugar (obtained from sugar cane and
sugar beets).
• Consists of glucose and fructose.
• Has an α,β-1,2-glycosidic bond (between α-glucose and
b-fructose).
• Is not a reducing sugar (carbon 1 cannot open to give a
free aldehyde to oxidize).
Sucrose
40.
41. Invert Sugar
Invert or sugar syrup is a mixture of glucose and fructose.
It is obtained by splitting sucrose into these two components.
Compared with its precursor sucrose, inverted sugar is sweeter
and its products tend to retain moisture and are less prone to
crystallization.
Invert sugar is therefore valued by bakers.
C12H22O11 + H2O → C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
Sucrose Glucose Fructose
+66.5° +52.7° −92°
43. 1) Homoglycans: single type of monomer (Starch,
Cellulose, Glycogen, Dextrins or Inulin)
2) Heteroglycans : contain two or more different
kinds (Mucopolysaccharides)
Characteristics:
-polymers (MW from 200,000)
-White and amorphous products (glassy)
-not sweet
-not reducing; do not give the typical aldose or ketose
reactions
-form colloidal solutions or suspensions
Polysaccharides or glycans
43
44. Homopoysaccharides are polymers composed of
a single type of sugar monomers
Homopoysaccharides
44
Homo polysaccharides
Fructosan
e.g. Inulin
Glucosans
e.g. Starch
Glycogen
Cellulose
Galactosan
e.g. Agar
45. 1) Glycogen (Storage Polysaccharide)
-Also known as animal starch
-Stored in muscle and liver
-Present in cells as granules (high MW)
-Contains both α(1,4) links and α (1,6) branches at every
8 to 12 glucose unit
-Complete hydrolysis yields glucose
- With iodine gives a red-violet color
-Hydrolyzed by both α and β-amylases and by glycogen
phosphorylase
Glucosans /Glucans
45
47. -In the liver, glycogen synthesis and degradation are regulated
to maintain blood-glucose levels as required to meet the needs
of the organism as a whole. Glycogen serves as a buffer to
maintain blood glucose level.
-In contrast, in muscle, these processes are regulated to meet the
energy needs of the muscle itself.
- The concentration of glycogen is higher in the liver than in
muscle (10% versus 2% by weight), but more glycogen is stored
in skeletal muscle overall because of its much greater mass.
Glycogen
47
Structure of
Glycogen
48. -Most common storage polysaccharide in plants
-Composed of 10 – 30% Amylose and 70-90% amylopectin
depending on the source
(a) Amylose is a linear polymer of α-D-glucose, linked
together by α 1→4 glycosidic linkages. It is soluble in water,
reacts with iodine to give a blue color and the molecular
weight of Amylose ranges between 50, 000 – 200, 000.
(b) Amylopectin is a highly branched polymer, insoluble in
water, reacts with iodine to give a reddish violet color. The
molecular weight ranges between 70, 000 - 1 000, 000.
Branches are composed of 25-30 glucose units linked by α
1→4 glycosidic linkage in the chain and by α 1→6
glycosidic linkage at the branch point.
Starch (Storage Polysaccharide)
48
50. Starch
50
Suspensions of Amylose
in water adopt a helical
conformation
Iodine (I2) can insert in
the middle of the Amylose
helix to give a blue color
that is characteristic and
diagnostic for starch
51. -Polymer of b-D-glucose linked by b(1,4) linkages
-Yields glucose upon complete hydrolysis
-Partial hydrolysis yields cellobiose
-Most abundant of all carbohydrates
-Gives no color with iodine
-Cellulose is tasteless, odorless and insoluble in water and
most organic solvents.
Cellulose (Structural Polysaccharide)
51
53. Cellulose
Biochemistry for medics 53
Cellulose consists of β -D-glucopyranose units linked by
β 1 →4 bonds to form long, straight chains strengthened
by cross-linking hydrogen bonds.
54. Mammals lack any enzyme that hydrolyzes the β 1→ 4
bonds, and hence cannot digest cellulose.
It is an important source of "bulk" in the diet, and the
major component of dietary fiber.
Microorganisms in the gut of ruminants and other
herbivores can hydrolyze the linkage and ferment the
products to short-chain fatty acids as a major energy
source.
Cellulose- Digestion
55. -Microcrystalline cellulose : used as binder-
disintegrant in tablets
-Methylcellulose: suspending agent and bulk
laxative
-Oxidized cellulose: hemostat
-Sodium carboxymethyl cellulose: laxative
-Cellulose acetate: rayon; photographic film;
plastics
-Cellulose acetate phthalate: enteric coating
-Nitrocellulose: explosives; collodion
(pyroxylin)
Significance of Cellulose
56. -Chitin is the second most abundant carbohydrate
polymer of N- Acetyl Glucosamine
-present in the cell wall of fungi and in the
exoskeletons of crustaceans, insects and spiders
-chitin is used commercially in coatings (extends the
shelf life of fruits and meats
Chitin- Structural Polysaccharide
56
57.
58. Mucopolysaccharides or Glycosaminoglycans.
It contain two or more different kinds
Usually contains an acid sugar and an amino sugar.
Acid sugar is generally D- Glucuronic acid or its C-5 epimer
Iduronic acid,
while amino sugar is either D- Glucosamine or D-Galactosamine,
amino group is generally acetylated eliminating its positive
charge.
The amino sugar may be sulfated on non acetylated nitrogen.
Heteropolysaccharides
58
59. Hyaluronic acid-(D-glucuronate + GlcNAc)n
Occurrence: synovial fluid, ECM of loose connective tissue.
Serves as a lubricant and shock absorber.
-It forms non-covalently linked complexes with Proteoglycans
in the Extracellular matrix
-Hyaluronic acid polymers are very large (100 - 10,000 kDa)
and can displace a large volume of water.
Dermatan sulfate (L-Iduronate + GalNAc sulfate) n
Occurrence: skin, blood vessels, heart valves
Chondroitin sulfate (D-glucuronate + GalNAc sulfate)n
Occurrence: cartilage, tendons, ligaments, heart valves and
aorta.
It is the most abundant GAG.
59
60. Heparin
(D-glucuronate sulfate + N-sulfo-D-glucosamine) n
Heparans have less sulfate groups than heparins
Occurrence:
Heparin : component of intracellular granules of mast cells lining the
arteries of the lungs, liver and skin ( Contrary to other GAGs that are
extra cellular compounds, it is intracellular). Acts as an anticoagulant.
Heparan sulfate : basement membranes, component of cell surfaces
Glycosaminoglycans of physiological
Significance
61. -Homopoysaccharides are polymers of similar monomer
monosaccharides linked together by Glycosidic linkages.
Functionally they may be storage or structural
polysaccharides
-Heteropolysaccharides are polymers of a repeating
disaccharide units with enormous diversity. They are
components of extra cellular matrix (ECM), joints, cartilages,
tendons, cornea and sclera. Heparin is an anticoagulant.
Summary