This document provides an overview of carbohydrates or saccharides. It begins by defining monosaccharides as the basic carbohydrate units and polysaccharides as polymeric forms. The document then details various monosaccharides including aldoses and ketoses with 3-7 carbons. It discusses cyclic forms, configurations, derivatives and glycosidic bonds. Important polysaccharides are also summarized such as structural cellulose, storage starch and branched amylopectin/glycogen. The document concludes with an overview of glycoproteins.
Definition
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes, or ketones or substances that hydrolyze to yield polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones.
They usually contain hydrogen and oxygen in the same ratio as in water (2:1). Thus the name carbohydrates indicates that these compounds are hydrates of carbon.
Carbohydrates have the general formula
Cx(H2O)Y while X = Y e.g hexoses C6(H2O)6
Carbohydrates are the sugars, starches and fibers found in fruits, grains, vegetables and milk products. Though often maligned in trendy diets, carbohydrates — one of the basic food groups — are important to a healthy diet.
Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides- structure and functionDr. GURPREET SINGH
this presentation describes about the structure of carbohydrates in detail with specific reference to monosaccharides, their classification, structural component and functions
this power point is about the biochemistry of carbohydrates and the different types of carbohydrates and detailed information about every one of them and in the last slides the deficiency of carbohydrates explained and the symptoms also.
Deoxy sugars, 6-Deoxy-hexoses
(methyl pentoses or hexomethyloses)
alpha-L-Rhamnose (6-deoxy-L-mannose),D-Digitoxose
a component of the sugar part of Digitalis glycosides
Keller Killiane test ,DISACCHARIDES, Maltose (malt sugar)
Lactose (milk sugar) LACTULOSE, Polysaccharide
A comprehensive presentation on carbohydrate chemistry with subtitles including definition,physical properties ,classification,glycosidic bonds in disaccharides ,comparision of disaccharides ,comparison of starch ,cellulose ,glycogen,,structure & functions of dextran,agar,structure & functions of heteropolysaccharides,,mucopolysaccharidoses,reactions of monosaccharides -oxidation,reduction,osazone formation,dehydration,derivatives of monosaccharides -aminosugars ,sugar alcohols,optical activity,,stereoisomers, epimers ,mutarotation,inversion test for sucrose ,functions of glycoproteins,glycosides ,alpha and beta D glucose ,pyranose and funarose ring structures of glucose and fructose
Definition
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes, or ketones or substances that hydrolyze to yield polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones.
They usually contain hydrogen and oxygen in the same ratio as in water (2:1). Thus the name carbohydrates indicates that these compounds are hydrates of carbon.
Carbohydrates have the general formula
Cx(H2O)Y while X = Y e.g hexoses C6(H2O)6
Carbohydrates are the sugars, starches and fibers found in fruits, grains, vegetables and milk products. Though often maligned in trendy diets, carbohydrates — one of the basic food groups — are important to a healthy diet.
Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides- structure and functionDr. GURPREET SINGH
this presentation describes about the structure of carbohydrates in detail with specific reference to monosaccharides, their classification, structural component and functions
this power point is about the biochemistry of carbohydrates and the different types of carbohydrates and detailed information about every one of them and in the last slides the deficiency of carbohydrates explained and the symptoms also.
Deoxy sugars, 6-Deoxy-hexoses
(methyl pentoses or hexomethyloses)
alpha-L-Rhamnose (6-deoxy-L-mannose),D-Digitoxose
a component of the sugar part of Digitalis glycosides
Keller Killiane test ,DISACCHARIDES, Maltose (malt sugar)
Lactose (milk sugar) LACTULOSE, Polysaccharide
A comprehensive presentation on carbohydrate chemistry with subtitles including definition,physical properties ,classification,glycosidic bonds in disaccharides ,comparision of disaccharides ,comparison of starch ,cellulose ,glycogen,,structure & functions of dextran,agar,structure & functions of heteropolysaccharides,,mucopolysaccharidoses,reactions of monosaccharides -oxidation,reduction,osazone formation,dehydration,derivatives of monosaccharides -aminosugars ,sugar alcohols,optical activity,,stereoisomers, epimers ,mutarotation,inversion test for sucrose ,functions of glycoproteins,glycosides ,alpha and beta D glucose ,pyranose and funarose ring structures of glucose and fructose
1. Carbohydrates or Saccharides
• most abundant biological molecules
• contain primary three atoms - C, H, O
• general formula, (CH2O)n where n > 3
• monosaccharide = basic carbohydrate unit
• polysaccharide = polymeric form
• structural variation of carbohydrates is
fundamental to their biological activity
1. Monosaccharides
2. Polysaccharides
3. Glycoproteins
Outline:
2. Monosaccharides - definitions
• Monosaccharides are aldehyde or ketone
derivatives of straight-chain polyhydroxy
alcohols containing at least 3 carbon atoms.
• Aldose = carbohydrate containing an aldehyde
• Ketose = carbohydrate containing a ketone
Carbon atoms
in alcohol Name
3 triose
4 tetrose
5 pentose
6 hexose
7 heptose
. .
3. Monosaccharides - 3, 4, 5 carbon aldoses
H
Aldotriose Aldotetroses
CHO
C OH
H C OH
H C OH
CH2OH
H
CHO
C OH
HO C H
H C OH
CH2OH
CHO
HO C H
H C OH
H C OH
CH2OH
D-Ribose
(Rib)
D-Arabinose
(Ara)
D-Xylose
(Xyl)
H
CHO
C OH
H C OH
CH2OH
D-Erythrose
HO
CHO
C H
H C OH
CH2OH
D-Threose
H
CHO
C OH
CH2OH
D-Glyceraldehyde
Aldopentoses
Fischer
projections
4. Monosaccharides - 6 carbon aldoses
H
CHO
C OH
HO C H
H C OH
H C OH
CH2OH
CHO
HO C H
HO C H
H C OH
H C OH
CH2OH
CHO
H C OH
HO C H
HO C H
H C OH
CH2OH
CHO
H C OH
H C OH
H C OH
H C OH
CH2OH
D-Allose D-Glucose
(Glc)
D-Mannose
(Man)
D-Galactose
(Gal)
Aldohexoses
5. Monosaccharides - ketoses
Ketotriose Ketotetrose
CH2OH
C O
H C OH
CH2OH
D-Erythrulose
CH2OH
C O
CH2OH
Dihydroxyacetone
Ketopentoses
CH2OH
C O
H C OH
H C OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
C O
HO C H
H C OH
CH2OH
D-Ribulose D-Xylulose
Ketohexoses
CH2OH
C O
HO C H
H C OH
H C OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
C O
H C OH
HO C H
H C OH
CH2OH
D-Fructose D-Sorbose
6. Configuration and Conformation
Alcohols can react
with aldehydes or
ketones to form
hemiacetals or
hemiketals.
O H
+ C
R OH R' C
H
O
OH
R'
R
hemiacetal
O R''
+ C
R OH R' C
R''
O
OH
R'
R
hemiketal
The hydroxy group and the aldehyde (or ketone) of
monosaccharides can react intramolecularly to form
cyclic hemiacetals (or hemiketals).
7. Haworth Projections
H
CHO
C OH
HO C H
H C OH
H C OH
CH2OH
D-Glucose
CH2OH
H O
OH
H
OH
H
H
OH
H OH
H
OH
H
H
CH2OH
H
OH
OH
H OH
O
=
CH2OH
OH
HOH2C
H
O
H HO
OH H
CH2OH
C O
HO C H
H C OH
H C OH
CH2OH
D-Fructose
CH2OH
O
HOH2C
H
OH
H HO
OH H
=
-D-Glucopyranose
-D-Fructofuranose
8. Cyclic Sugars have two Anomeric Forms
H
CHO
C OH
HO C H
H C OH
H C OH
CH2OH
D-Glucose
CH2OH
H O
OH
OH
H
H
H
OH
H OH
-D-Glucopyranose
CH2OH
H O
OH
H
OH
H
H
OH
H OH
-D-Glucopyranose
9. Monosaccharides are conformationally variable
Two chair conformations of -D-glucopyranose:
HO
O
H
H
HO
H
H OH
H
OH
OH
OH
O H
OH
H
OH
H
OH
H
OH
H
Two chair conformations of -D-glucopyranose:
HO
O
H
H
HO
H
H OH
HO
H
OH
H
O OH
OH
H
OH
H
OH
H
OH
H
10. Monosaccharide Derivatives
H
CHO
C OH
HO C H
H C OH
H C OH
COOH
D-Glucuronic acid
Oxidations:
H
COOH
C OH
HO C H
H C OH
H C OH
CH2OH
D-Gluconic acid
Reductions:
H
CH2OH
C OH
H C OH
H C OH
CH2OH
H
CH2OH
C OH
HO C H
H C OH
CH2OH
D-Ribitol D-Xylitol
H
Amino Sugars:
CH2OH
C OH
CH2OH
D-Glycerol
H
CH2OH
HO
CH2OH
H
OH
OH
H
HO OH
H H
H
OH
H OH
myo-Inositol
H O
HO
H
OH
H
H
OH
H NH2
-D-Glucosamine
HO O
H
H
OH
H
H NH2
-D-Galactosamine
11. Glycosides
The anomeric carbon can condense with alcohols
CH2OH
H O
HO
H
OH
H
H
OH
H OH
-D-Glucose
+ CH3OH
( R-OH )
CH2OH
H O
HO
H
+ + H2O
OCH3
H
H
OH
H OH
Methyl--D-Glucoside
CH2OH
H O
HO
OCH3
H
H
H
OH
H OH
Methyl--D-Glucoside
( O-R )
( O-R )
to form -glycosides and -glycosides.
12. Polysaccharides (or Glycans)
• Homopolysaccharides - consist of one type of
monosaccharide
• Heteropolysaccharides - consist of more than one type of
monosaccharide
• Polysaccharides form branched as well as linear polymers.
• Complete description of an oligosaccharide includes:
- identity of the monosaccharides
- anomeric forms
- linkages of all its component monosaccharides
13. Disaccharides - simplest polysaccharides
Lactose
occurs naturally in milk
disaccharide of galactose
and glucose
6 6
1
CH2OH
H O OH
1
H
H
H
OH
H OH
-D-Glucose
CH2OH
HO O
H
H
OH
H H
H OH
-D-Galactose
O
Systematic Name: O--D-galactopyranosyl-(14)-D-glucopyranose
(14) designates that the glycosidic bond links C1 of galactose
with C4 of glucose
Lactose has a free anomeric carbon on the glucose end. This is an
example of a reducing sugar, and it can readily reduce mild
oxidizing agents.
14. Sucrose
Sucrose
most abundant dissacharide
common table sugar
major form of carbohydrate
transported in plants
6
CH2OH
H O H
H
H
OH
HOH2C H
O
H HO
1 2
O
HO CH2OH
H OH
-D-Glucose
OH H
-D-Fructose
Systematic Name: O--D-glucopyranosyl-(12)--D-fructofuranoside
The anomeric carbon of glucose and the anomeric carbon
of fructose participates in the glycosidic bond.
6
5
15. Structural Polysaccharide - Cellulose
• Plants have rigid cell walls to withstand osmotic pressure
differences and for load-bearing functions.
• Cellulose is the primary structural component of plant cell
walls.
• Cellulose is a linear polymer of up to 15,000 D-glucose
residues linked by (14) glycosidic bonds.
CH2OH
H O
[ H
O H
]
H
OH
H OH
-D-Glucose
O
CH2OH
H O
H
H
H
OH
H OH
-D-Glucose
n
16. Storage Polysaccharide - Starch
• Starch is a mixture of glycans that plants synthesize as
their principal food reserve.
• Composed primarily of -amylose and -amylopectin.
• The -amylose is a linear polymer of glucose residues
linked by (14) bonds.
n
CH2OH
H O
H
H
OH
H OH
-D-Glucose
CH2OH
H O
H
H
OH
H OH
H
[ ]
-D-Glucose
O
H
O
-amylose
Fig. 8-10
Saliva contains amylase which hydrolyzes
the (14) bonds of starch.
17. Amylopectin and Glycogen
- branched polysaccharide
• Amylopectin in plants and Glycogen in animals consist
mainly of (14)-linked glucose residues but is a branched
molecule with (16) branch points.
(16) branch point (16) branch point
n
Amylopectin in plants
O
H
CH2OH
H
OH
H OH
H
]
O
H
O
H
CH2
H
OH
H OH
H
[ O
H
O
O
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
[
(16) branch points every
24 to 30 glucose residues
n
Glycogen in animals
O
H
CH2OH
H
OH
H OH
H
]
O
H
O
H
CH2
H
OH
H OH
H
[ O
H
O
O
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
[
(16) branch points every
8 to 12 glucose residues
18. Glycoproteins
• Many proteins are actually glycoproteins with carbohydrates
(varing from <1% to >90%).
• Polypeptide chain is synthesized under genetic control.
• The carbohydrate is added by posttranslational modification.
Proteoglycans =
complex mixture
consisting of
proteins and
glycosaminoglycans.
a proteoglycan
Fig. 8-13