This document discusses carbohydrate metabolism and classification. It begins by classifying carbohydrates according to their definitions and discussing isomeric properties. Key points include that carbohydrates are abundant organic molecules that provide energy. They can be monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides. Isomers include structural, functional, positional, and stereoisomers such as cis-trans and optical isomers. Common monosaccharides include glucose, fructose and galactose. Oligosaccharides join monosaccharides and polysaccharides join more than six monosaccharides. Glycosidic bonds form between carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are important for energy storage, structure, and other roles in living organisms.
"Introns: Structure and Functions" during November, 2011 (Friday Seminar activity, Department of Biotechnology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, Karnataka) by Yogesh S Bhagat (Ph D Scholar)
"Introns: Structure and Functions" during November, 2011 (Friday Seminar activity, Department of Biotechnology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, Karnataka) by Yogesh S Bhagat (Ph D Scholar)
Describes various aspects of Ramachandran plot. Different torsion angles are described with clear figures. How protein folding is affected by torsion angles is also explained.
Synthesis of Sucrose and starch very easy way to learn.
If you want to get more updated information According to your desires comment and like share this information with your friends to spread more knowledge.
please follow me on my chennel (https://youtu.be/8PwyfBpvyfo)
and Instagram ( rahee413)
And
Carotenoids, also called tetraterpenoids, are organic pigments that are produced by plants and algae, as well as several bacteria and fungi. Carotenoids can be produced from fats and other basic organic metabolic building blocks by all these organisms.
this presentation is about cellulose and cellobiose, their function and structures etc. the slides contain structure and figures related to the topics. i hopes it will useful for you peoples.
Describes various aspects of Ramachandran plot. Different torsion angles are described with clear figures. How protein folding is affected by torsion angles is also explained.
Synthesis of Sucrose and starch very easy way to learn.
If you want to get more updated information According to your desires comment and like share this information with your friends to spread more knowledge.
please follow me on my chennel (https://youtu.be/8PwyfBpvyfo)
and Instagram ( rahee413)
And
Carotenoids, also called tetraterpenoids, are organic pigments that are produced by plants and algae, as well as several bacteria and fungi. Carotenoids can be produced from fats and other basic organic metabolic building blocks by all these organisms.
this presentation is about cellulose and cellobiose, their function and structures etc. the slides contain structure and figures related to the topics. i hopes it will useful for you peoples.
This presentation is based on the main topics dealing with chapter no 14.of chemistry.this chapter deals with the introduction ,classification,properties and functions of carbohydrates,proteins, Enzymes,vitamins,nucleic acids,lipid etc. this presentation will help students as well as teachers in the teaching learning process
Introduction to Carbohydrates and its ChemistryDHANANJAY PATIL
A Comprehensive Introduction to Carbohydrates its chemistry, classification, qualitative tests an disorders related to its metabolism. This will give readers a overall insight to this topic. All types of queries and suggestions are most welcome
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Honest Reviews of Tim Han LMA Course Program.pptxtimhan337
Personal development courses are widely available today, with each one promising life-changing outcomes. Tim Han’s Life Mastery Achievers (LMA) Course has drawn a lot of interest. In addition to offering my frank assessment of Success Insider’s LMA Course, this piece examines the course’s effects via a variety of Tim Han LMA course reviews and Success Insider comments.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
2. CARBOHYDRATES
Sept. 2007
Learning objectives:
Classify carbohydrates according to their definitions
Discuss isomeric properties of carbohydrates
Draw structures of the most common carbohydrates
Discuss digestion of dietary carbohydrates
3. CARBOHYDRATES
Sept. 2007
• The most abundant organic molecules in nature
• Provide a significant fraction of the energy in the diet of most organisms
• Important source of energy for cells
• Can act as a storage form of energy
• Can be structural components of many organisms
• Can be cell-membrane components mediating intercellular communication
• Can be cell-surface antigens
• Can be part of the body’s extracellular ground substance
• Can be associated with proteins and lipids
• Part of RNA, DNA, and several coenzymes (NAD+, NADP+, FAD, CoA)
4. CARBOHYDRATES
Polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones,
or substances that yield these compounds on hydrolysis
Carbohydrate with an aldehyde group: Aldose
Carbohydrate with a ketone group: Ketose
O H
C
H- C - OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
C O
CH2OH
Glyceraldehyde Dihydroxyacetone
Aldehyde
group
Keto
group
5. CARBOHYDRATES
Polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones,
or substances that yield these compounds on hydrolysis
Empirical formula of many simpler carbohydrates: (CH2O)n
(hence the name hydrate of carbon)
Both can be
written
C3H6O3 or
(CH2O)3
Glyceraldehyde Dihydroxyacetone
O H
C
H- C - OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
C O
CH2OH
6. Monosaccharides
Polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones that can’t easily be
further hydrolyzed
“Simple sugars”
Number of carbons Name Example
3 Trioses Glyceraldehyde
4 Tetroses Erythrose
5 Pentoses Ribose
6 Hexoses Glucose, Fructose
7 Heptoses Sedoheptulose
9 Nonoses Neuraminic acid
7. Oligosaccharides
Hydrolyzable polymers of 2-6 monosaccharides
Disaccharides composed of 2 monosaccharides
Examples: Sucrose, Lactose
Polysaccharides
Hydrolyzable polymers of > 6 monosaccharides
Homopolysaccharides:
polymer of a single type of monosaccharide
Examples: Glycogen, Cellulose
Heteropolysaccharides:
polymer of at least 2 types of monosaccharide
Example: Glucosaminoglycans
8. ISOMERISM
Structural isomers
Compounds with the same molecular formula but with
different structures
Functional group isomers
with different functional groups
E.g. glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone
Positional isomers
with substituent groups on different C-atoms
E.g.
COO--CHOPO3
--CH2OH and COO--CHOH-CH2OPO3
-
2-Phosphoglycerate 3-Phosphoglycerate
9. ISOMERISM
Stereoisomers
Compounds with the same molecular formula, functional
groups, and position of functional groups but with
different conformations
cis-trans isomers
with different conformation around double bonds
H COOH H COOH
C C
C C
HOOC H H COOH
Fumaric acid (trans) Maleic acid (cis)
10. ISOMERISM
Stereoisomers
Compounds with the same molecular formula, functional
groups, and position of functional groups but with
different conformations
optical isomers
with different conformation around chiral or asymmetric
carbon atoms
The carbon C is asymmetric if A, B, D, and E
are four different groups
The four different groups A, B, D, and E can be
arranged in space around the C-atom in two
different ways to generate two different
compounds
B
A C D
E
11. ISOMERISM
Stereoisomers
Compounds with the same molecular formula, functional
groups, and position of functional groups but with
different conformations
optical isomers
with different conformation around chiral or asymmetric
carbon atoms
The mirror images can’t be
superimposed on each other,
i.e. they are different
The mirror image isomers
constitute an enantiomeric pair;
one member of the pair is said
to be the enantiomer of the
other
Mirror
B
A C D
E
B
D C A
E
12. ISOMERISM
One member of an enantiomeric pair will rotate a plane of polarized
light in a clockwise direction.
It is said to be dextrorotatory which is labelled (+)
The other member of the pair will then rotate the light in a
counterclockwise direction.
It is said to be levorotatory which is labelled (-)
Mirror
B
A C D
E
B
D C A
E
14. Reference compound for optical isomers is the simplest monosaccharide with
an asymmetric carbon: glyceraldehyde
D-Glyceraldehyde is assigned to be the isomer that has the hydroxyl group
on the right when the aldehyde group is at the top in a Fischer projection formula.
It is also dextrorotatory, so it is also D(+)-Glyceraldehyde
C-atom 1
C-atom 2 (an asymmetric carbon)
C-atom 3
O H
C
H- C - OH
CH2OH
D-Glyceraldehyde L-Glyceraldehyde Dihydroxyacetone
O H
C
H- C - OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
C O
CH2OH
O H
C
HO- C - H
CH2OH
15. If a compound has n asymmetric carbon atoms then there are
2n different optical isomers
Number of Number of Number of
carbon atoms Aldose/Ketose asymmetric carbon atoms optical isomers
3 Aldose 1 2
4 Aldose 2 4
5 Aldose 3 8
6 Aldose 4 16
3 Ketose 0 -
4 Ketose 1 2
5 Ketose 2 4
6 Ketose 3 8
16. D & L designate absolute configuration of the asymmetric carbon atom farthest
from the aldehyde or ketone group
CHO
Ι
OH – C – H
Ι
OH – C - H
Ι
CH2OH
L-Erythrose
CHO
Ι
OH – C – H
Ι
H – C - OH
Ι
CH2OH
D-Threose
CHO
Ι
H – C – OH
Ι
H – C - OH
Ι
CH2OH
D-Erythrose
CHO
Ι
H – C – OH
Ι
OH – C - H
Ι
CH2OH
L-Threose
17. Optical isomers that are not enantiomers are diastereomers
Diastereomers that differ by their configuration on a single
asymmetric carbon are epimers
CHO
Ι
H – C – OH
Ι
HO – C – H
Ι
H – C – OH
Ι
H – C – OH
Ι
CH2OH
D-Glucose
CHO
Ι
HO – C – H
Ι
HO – C – H
Ι
H – C – OH
Ι
H – C – OH
Ι
CH2OH
D-Mannose
CHO
Ι
H – C – OH
Ι
HO – C – H
Ι
HO – C – H
Ι
H – C – OH
Ι
CH2OH
D-Galactose
CH2OH
Ι
C = O
Ι
HO – C – H
Ι
H – C – OH
Ι
H – C – OH
Ι
CH2OH
D-Fructose
CHO
Ι
HO – C – OH
Ι
H – C – OH
Ι
H – C – OH
Ι
CH2OH
D-Ribose
C6H12O6 C6H12O6 C6H12O6 C6H12O6 C5H10O5
18. Reactions involving aldehyde and keto groups in carbohydrates
Aldehyde + Alcohol Hemiacetal
Ketone + Alcohol Hemiketal
19. With ring formation involving the aldehyde- or ketone-carbon atom, this
carbon atom also becomes asymmetric, giving two possible isomers called
anomers
The carbon atom is the anomeric carbon
The hydroxyl group bound to the anomeric carbon is the anomeric hydroxyl group.
In Haworth formulas of D-pentoses and D-hexoses,
the α-anomer has the anomeric hydroxyl written below the ring plane
the β-anomer has the anomeric hydroxyl written above the ring plane
6-membered ring: Pyranose
5-membered ring: Furanose
20. Mutarotation: Spontaneous conversion of one anomer to the other
Equilibrium: 36% α-anomer, 63% β-anomer, <1% open-chain form
O
H OH
OH H
CH2OH
H
OH
H H
OH
O
H OH
OH H
CH2OH
H
OH
H OH
H
CHO
Ι
H – C – OH
Ι
HO – C – H
Ι
H – C – OH
Ι
H – C – OH
Ι
CH2OH
D-Glucose
α-anomer β-anomer
21. Learn (know) these structures
O
H OH
OH H
CH2OH
H
OH
H OH
H
O
H H
OH OH
CH2OH
H
OH
H OH
H
O
H OH
OH H
CH2OH
H
H
OH OH
H
O
OH H
H OH
H
CH2OH
OH
CH2OH
O
OH OH
H H
H
OH
H
CH2OH
D-Glucopyranose D-Mannopyranose D-Galactopyranose
D-Fructopyranose D-Ribofuranose
22. Reducing sugars
Carbohydrate with a free or potentially free aldehyde or ketone group
Benedict’s solution
HOCH
Ι Ι
H – C – OH
Ι
HO – C – H
Ι
H – C – OH
Ι
H – C – OH
Ι
CH2OH
Enediol
CH2OH
Ι
C = O
Ι
HO – C – H
Ι
H – C – OH
Ι
H – C – OH
Ι
CH2OH
D-Fructose
CHO
Ι
H – C – OH
Ι
HO – C – H
Ι
H – C – OH
Ι
H – C – OH
Ι
CH2OH
D-Glucose
OH - OH -
CHO
Ι
H – C – OH
Ι
HO – C – H
Ι
H – C – OH
Ι
H – C – OH
Ι
CH2OH
COOH
Ι
H – C – OH
Ι
HO – C – H
Ι
H – C – OH
Ι
H – C – OH
Ι
CH2OH
Cu2+ Cu+ Cu2O
O
H OH
OH H
CH2OH
H
OH
H OH
H
H2O, OH-
23. Glycosidic bonds
Bond formed between the anomeric carbon of a
carbohydrate and the hydroxyl oxygen atom of an
alcohol (O-glycosidic bond) or the nitrogen of an
amine (N-glycosidic bond)
Glycosidic bonds between monosaccharides yields
oligo- and polysaccharides
After glycosidic bond formation, the ring formation
involving the anomeric carbon is stabilized with no
potentially free aldehyde or keto groups
24. O-glycosidic bonds
R’’
O OH O O
C + HO – R’’ C + H2O
R H (R’) R H (R’)
Hemiacetal Alcohol Acetal Water
(Hemiketal) (Ketal)
29. Glucosaminoglycans
Large complexes of negatively charged heteropolysaccharide
chains
Typically associated with a small (<5%) amount of protein
forming proteoglycans
Properties
Can bind large amounts of water
Gel-like matrix
Viscous
Lubricating
Shock absorbing
30. Glucosaminoglycans
Repeating disaccharide units [acidic sugar – amino sugar]n
O
Amino sugar is D-glucosamine or D-galactosamine with the amino group usually
acetylated
Acidic sugar is D-gluconic acid or L-iduronic acid
Hydroxyl or amino groups may be sulfated
Carboxyl groups and sulfate groups make glycosaminoglycans negatively charged
at physiological pH
31. Carbohydrates of glycoproteins
Glycoproteins contain less carbohydrate than proteoglycans.
Carbohydrates can be attached to the amide nitrogen in
the side chain of asparagine (N-linkage) or to the hydroxyl
oxygen of serine or threonine (O-linkage)
33. Carbohydrates of glycoproteins
Most proteins in serum are glycosylated
Example: Erythropoietin
Glycosylation enhances stability of erytropoietin in blood
34. Carbohydrates of glycoproteins
Several monosaccharide building blocks
(e.g. glucose, galactose, mannose, N-acetyl glucosamine,
N-acetyl galactosamine, N-acetyl mannoseamine, fucose,
N-acetylneuraminic acid)
Branching
Several possible glycosidic bonds
Several potential glycosylation sites in glycoproteins
Great
structural
complexity!
35. Dietary carbohydrates
• Starch
• Sucrose
• Glucose and fructose
• Lactose
• Cellulose
• Other plant polysaccharides
Digestible
Non-digestible
by humans
Only monosaccharides are absorbed into the bloodstream
from the gut.
Digestion of carbohydrates involves their hydrolysis into
monosaccharides
36. Digestive Enzymes
Enzymes for carbohydrate digestion
Enzyme Source Substrate Products
α-Amylase Salivary gland Starch, glycogen Oligosaccharides
Pancreas
Dextrinase Small intestine Oligosaccharides Glucose
Isomaltase Small intestine α-1,6-glucosides Glucose
Maltase Small intestine Maltose Glucose
Lactase Small intestine Lactose Galactose, glucose
Sucrase Small intestine Sucrose Fructose, glucose
Lactase deficiency produces lactose intolerance
37. Absorption of monosaccharides
by intestinal mucosal cells
Major monosaccharides
Glucose, galactose, fructose
Entry into mucosal cells from intestinal lumen
Active transport of glucose and galactose with a concurrent
uptake of Na+ ions
Facilitated transport of fructose via transporter protein
GLUT-5
Entry into the portal circulation from mucosal cells
Facilitated transport via transporter protein GLUT-2
38. Blood glucose concentrations
Measured in mmol/L = mM or in mg/dL
Conversion factor: 1 mM = 18 mg/dL
Normal plasma glucose concentrations roughly
3.9 – 8.3 mM
Hypoglycemia: < 2.2 mM
Diabetes: > 7.0 mM (fasting)
> 11.1 mM 2 h after ingestion of 75 g glucose
All cells can use glucose as an energy source
Brain cells and erythrocytes require glucose as an energy source