Carbohydrates
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Carbohydrates include sugars, starches, and cellulose and are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They can be divided into monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides like glucose are single sugars, disaccharides like sucrose are double sugars formed from two monosaccharides, and polysaccharides like starch are polymers made of many glucose molecules. Starch is the main storage carbohydrate in plants and is made of amylose, a single spiral chain of glucose, and amylopectin, branched chains of glucose. Glycogen serves the same function in animals and has a similar structure to amylopectin. Cellulose forms plant cell walls and is made of straight chains of glucose
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Biochemistry lecture notes carbohydrates
This document provides information about carbohydrates. It begins by defining carbohydrates and describing their main biological functions. It then discusses the three main classes of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. For each class, key examples are provided and their structures and properties are explained. The document also covers topics like stereochemistry of carbohydrates, glycosaminoglycans, and important monosaccharides and polysaccharides like starch, cellulose, and glycogen. In summary, it serves as a comprehensive overview of carbohydrate structure, classification, and functions in biological systems.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on Earth. They are classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on their complexity. Monosaccharides include simple sugars like glucose and fructose. Oligosaccharides contain 2-10 monosaccharide units and include disaccharides like sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides and include starch, cellulose, and glycogen. Carbohydrates serve important functions like energy storage, structure, and participating in biological processes as components of other biomolecules.
Polysaccharides
Glycans are polymers of monosaccharides or their derivatives linked together by glycosidic bonds. They exist in both linear and branched forms. Starch is a storage polysaccharide in plants composed of amylose and amylopectin. Amylose is an unbranched chain of glucose while amylopectin is highly branched with branches every 24-30 glucose units. Enzymes like amylase hydrolyze starch into sugars like maltose and dextrins. Dextrans are produced by bacteria and used in medical applications like plasma volume expansion. Glycogen is the form of starch storage in animal cells.
Carbohydrate presentation
Carbohydrates are sugars that provide the body with energy. There are two types - simple carbohydrates like refined sugars and fruits, and complex carbohydrates like grains. Carbohydrates are digested and absorbed for energy, and the best choices are whole grains, vegetables, and fruits. Disorders can result from too few or too many carbohydrates, such as diabetes, hypoglycemia, and lactose intolerance. Hypoglycemia occurs when blood sugar is too low and symptoms include shakiness, dizziness, and mood changes.
Carbohydrate structure
The document discusses carbohydrate structure and properties. It covers the biological and medical importance of carbohydrates, including their functions as energy stores and structural components. It also describes the chemical nature of carbohydrates as polyhydroxy alcohols with an aldehyde or keto group. Carbohydrate structure is examined using Fisher, Haworth and chair conformations. Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides like disaccharides, and polysaccharides including homo- and heteropolysaccharides. Important monosaccharides, derivatives, disaccharides and polysaccharides are identified. Properties of monosaccharides such as isomerism, optical activity, epimerism, hemiacetal/ketal formation,
Glycogenesis and Glycogenolysis (BIOCHEMISTRY)
Glycogenesis is the formation of glycogen from glucose, which occurs when glucose and ATP levels are high. Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen into glucose, which is stimulated by glucagon and epinephrine when blood glucose levels drop. Together, glycogenesis and glycogenolysis regulate glucose concentrations by converting excess glucose to glycogen for storage and releasing glucose from glycogen as needed.
Chemistry of carbohydrates - General introduction and classification
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Carbohydrates
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Biochemistry lecture notes carbohydrates
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Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on Earth. They are classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on their complexity. Monosaccharides include simple sugars like glucose and fructose. Oligosaccharides contain 2-10 monosaccharide units and include disaccharides like sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides and include starch, cellulose, and glycogen. Carbohydrates serve important functions like energy storage, structure, and participating in biological processes as components of other biomolecules.
Polysaccharides
Glycans are polymers of monosaccharides or their derivatives linked together by glycosidic bonds. They exist in both linear and branched forms. Starch is a storage polysaccharide in plants composed of amylose and amylopectin. Amylose is an unbranched chain of glucose while amylopectin is highly branched with branches every 24-30 glucose units. Enzymes like amylase hydrolyze starch into sugars like maltose and dextrins. Dextrans are produced by bacteria and used in medical applications like plasma volume expansion. Glycogen is the form of starch storage in animal cells.
Carbohydrate presentation
Carbohydrates are sugars that provide the body with energy. There are two types - simple carbohydrates like refined sugars and fruits, and complex carbohydrates like grains. Carbohydrates are digested and absorbed for energy, and the best choices are whole grains, vegetables, and fruits. Disorders can result from too few or too many carbohydrates, such as diabetes, hypoglycemia, and lactose intolerance. Hypoglycemia occurs when blood sugar is too low and symptoms include shakiness, dizziness, and mood changes.
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Glycogenesis and Glycogenolysis (BIOCHEMISTRY)
Glycogenesis is the formation of glycogen from glucose, which occurs when glucose and ATP levels are high. Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen into glucose, which is stimulated by glucagon and epinephrine when blood glucose levels drop. Together, glycogenesis and glycogenolysis regulate glucose concentrations by converting excess glucose to glycogen for storage and releasing glucose from glycogen as needed.
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Disaccharides
Disaccharides are composed of two monosaccharides joined by an O-glycosidic linkage. The main disaccharides discussed are:
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Carbohydrates are generally classified into monosaccharides (simple sugars), oligosaccharides (containing few sugar units) and polysaccharides (containing many sugar units).
Monosaccharides are sugar molecules containing short chain of carbon atoms, one aldehydic or ketonic group and hydroxyl groups attached to remaining Carbon atoms.
Oligosaccharides are formed by polymerisation of monosaccharide molecules by elimination of water molecules.
Polysaccharides are high molecular weight substances composed of large number of moosaccharide units combined to form one large polymer molecule. They may be straight chain or branched chain polymers.
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The document discusses carbohydrates, including their definition, classification, properties, and forms. Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of monosaccharide units. Monosaccharides like glucose are the most basic units and important biologically. Glucose exists in both open-chain and cyclic forms, and can exhibit mutarotation between alpha and beta anomer configurations. Carbohydrates serve important structural and energy storage functions in living organisms.
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The document provides information about biomolecules called carbohydrates. It discusses the three main groups of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Glucose is introduced as an important monosaccharide that serves as the major energy source for most cells. The structure of glucose and its alpha and beta isomers are described. Other monosaccharides like fructose and galactose are also mentioned. The document further explains polysaccharides like starch, cellulose, and glycogen, including their structures and functions in plants and animals. Tests for detecting carbohydrates like Benedict's test and iodine test are also summarized.
Oligo and polysaccharides
Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides are sugars. Oligosaccharides contain 2-10 monosaccharide units and include disaccharides like maltose and sucrose. Polysaccharides are high molecular weight carbohydrates that yield monosaccharides on hydrolysis. Examples are starch, glycogen, and inulin which store glucose in plants and animals. Starch is made of amylose and amylopectin, glycogen resembles amylopectin, and inulin links fructose units. They differ in structure, properties, and hydrolysis products.
Biological molecules
The document summarizes key biological molecules including carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates include sugars, starches, and cellulose and can be monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides. Proteins are made of amino acids joined by peptide bonds. Lipids include triglycerides and fats/oils. Nucleic acids DNA and RNA store and express genetic information through nucleotides of bases, sugars, and phosphates.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates : carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketones, or substances that yield such compounds on hydrolysis. A carbohydrate is a biological molecule consisting of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), and Oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen-oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water); in other words, with the empirical formula (CH2O)n. Simple carbohydrates are also known as "Sugars" or "Saccharides".
Depending upon the composition and complexity, carbohydrates are divided into four groups:
1. Monosaccharides
2. Disaccharides
3. Oligosaccharides
4. Polysaccharides
Monosaccharides: are simplest sugars, or the compounds which possess a free aldehyde (CHO) or ketone (C=O) group and two or more hydroxyl (OH) groups. They are simplest sugars and cannot be hydrolyzed further into smaller units. Examples of monosaccharides include:
1. Glucose
2. Fructose
3. Galactose
Disaccharides: Those sugars which yield two molecules of the same or different molecules of monosaccharides on hydrolysis are called Disaccharides. Three most common disaccharides of biological importance are:
1. Maltose
2. Lactose
3. Sucrose
Oligosaccharides: are compound sugars that yield more than two and less than ten molecules of the same or different monosaccharides on hydrolysis. Depending upon the number of monosaccharides units present in them oligosaccharides can be classified as Trisaccharides, Tetrasaccharides, Pentasaccharides and so on.
Polysaccharides: polysaccharides are polymers containing ten or more monosaccharides units attached together. Polysaccharides are also known as Glycans. Polysaccharides are further classified into:
1. Homopolysaccharides: are also known as homoglycans. Homopolysaccharides are polymer of same monosaccharide units. Example includes:
1. Starch
2. Glycogen
3. Cellulose
4. Inulin
5. Dextrin
6. Dextran
7. Chitin
Heteropolysaccharides: heteropolysaccharides are polysaccharides that contains different types of monosaccharides. Heteropolysaccharides can be classified as: GAG, AGAR, AGAROSE, PECTIN.
Chapter 7 carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are the most abundant biological molecules on Earth. They are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. There are five major classifications of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, and nucleotides. Monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides such as sucrose, lactose, and maltose are formed through the joining of two monosaccharides. Polysaccharides allow for large storage of glucose and include starch, glycogen, and dietary fiber such as cellulose. Carbohydrates have many functions including energy storage, structure, and components of proteins.
Biological molecules
Carbohydrates are compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They provide our bodies with energy and come in three types: monosaccharides like glucose and fructose, disaccharides formed when two monosaccharides join, and polysaccharides consisting of many joined sugar units like starch, glycogen, and cellulose. Lipids are triglycerides composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that provide energy storage and hormone production. Proteins are polymers of amino acids that perform critical functions like oxygen transport and hormone messaging. Nucleic acids are information-storing polymers including DNA with bases of adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine, and RNA.
B2 Chemistry Presentation
This document discusses carbohydrates including monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. It explains that monosaccharides have formulas of C5H10O5 or C6H12O6 and exist as pentoses or hexoses like glucose. Monosaccharides can form ring structures and optical isomers. Disaccharides like sucrose form from monosaccharide condensation, while polysaccharides like starch are made of many monosaccharide units and provide structure or energy storage. Polysaccharides serve important functions in the body including energy provision, energy storage as glycogen, and as dietary fiber.
2--Cellulose---Starch.ppt
This document discusses carbohydrates and their polymers. It begins by asking questions about monosaccharides, disaccharides, the difference between alpha and beta glucose, and polysaccharides like starch, glycogen and cellulose. It then explains the structures of these polysaccharides. Starch is made of amylose and amylopectin chains of alpha glucose while glycogen has shorter, more branched chains for quick energy storage in animals. Cellulose is made of long, straight chains of beta glucose that form microfibrils, giving plant cell walls strength. The document contrasts how each polymer's unique structure relates to its function for energy storage or structural support.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that provide energy. They are classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides based on their size. The main carbohydrates in food are starch, sucrose, lactose, and fiber. Carbohydrates are important for energy, structure, nutrient storage, and have many health benefits, but excess sugar intake can lead to issues like tooth decay, obesity, and diabetes.
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Biological examples of diffusion
Diffusion is the net movement of particles from an area of high concentration to low concentration due to random particle motion. It is a passive process that does not require energy. The rate of diffusion increases with larger concentration gradients and higher temperatures. Diffusion allows for the exchange of gases and other substances across membranes in cells, organs, and between a mother and unborn child.
Science inter house competition
The document assigns students a task to find and submit examples for 12 scientific items related to biology, chemistry, and physics. Students are to submit examples in the form of photos, equations, videos, diagrams, and more. House points will be awarded for completed entries that are emailed or submitted by half term. The 12 items students must find examples for include an industrial use of an enzyme, oxidation, wasted energy, an adaptation of a plant or animal, an ore, a non-contact force, a food chain, a hazardous chemical, heat transfer, decay, a change of state, and waves.
Science inter house competition
The document instructs the recipient to find examples of 12 scientific items related to biology, chemistry and physics in their own time between school and home. The examples can be in the form of photos, equations, videos, diagrams or other formats, and house points will be awarded for each completed entry that is emailed or submitted by hard copy. The 12 items are an industrial use of an enzyme, oxidation, wasted energy, an adaptation of a plant or animal, an ore, a non-contact force, a food chain, a hazardous chemical, heat transfer, decay, a change of state, and waves.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. There are three main types: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Glucose is a monosaccharide that can form glycosidic bonds to join with other monosaccharides and form disaccharides like maltose or polysaccharides like starch and cellulose. Glucose and fructose combine to form the disaccharide sucrose, while glucose and galactose form the disaccharide lactose. Benedict's test is used to detect the presence of reducing sugars like monosaccharides.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They are split into three groups: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are the simplest form and include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Two monosaccharides can join through a condensation reaction involving the removal of a water molecule to form a disaccharide, such as sucrose, lactose, or maltose. Disaccharides are broken down through hydrolysis, which is the opposite reaction of condensation and involves the addition of a water molecule.
Structure of Proteins
This document discusses the structure and functions of proteins. It explains that proteins have primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary levels of structure which determine their function. Fibrous proteins have structural functions like collagen, while globular proteins have metabolic functions like hemoglobin. The primary structure is the sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain. Secondary and tertiary structures form due to bonding which creates the 3D shape of the protein, important for its specific function of interacting with other molecules.
LIPIDS
Lipids are a diverse group of organic compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They include fats and oils, with fats being solid at room temperature and oils being liquid. Triglycerides are the main type of lipid, composed of a glycerol molecule bonded to three fatty acid molecules by ester bonds. Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds, giving them a lower melting point than saturated fatty acids which have only single bonds between carbon atoms. Phospholipids are similar to triglycerides but with one fatty acid replaced by a phosphate group, giving them a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail.
PROTEINS
Proteins have a variety of important functions in living organisms. They are made up of chains of amino acids that join together to form complex structures ranging from simple primary to advanced quaternary structures which determine their specific roles. Globular proteins have spherical shapes defined by their amino acid sequences which allow metabolic functions like enzymatic reactions, while changes in structure through denaturation disrupt protein functioning.
Biological molecules
The document provides an overview of key biological molecules including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. It describes the structures and functions of monomers, polymers, and larger molecules formed from these basic units. Key points covered include the structures of monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides; fatty acid and triglyceride structures; levels of protein structure from primary to quaternary; and DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis processes.
Enzymes and digestion2
The document discusses the role of digestive enzymes in breaking down food molecules in the digestive system. Starch is broken down by amylase and maltase. Proteins are broken down by trypsin and peptidases. Lipase breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol. The structure and specificity of enzymes is also described.
Enzymes and digestion
The document discusses the role of digestive enzymes in breaking down food molecules in the digestive system. Starch is broken down by amylase into maltose and then further by maltase into glucose. Proteins are broken down by trypsin into peptides and then by peptidases into amino acids. Lipase breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol. The structure and specificity of enzymes is also described.
Effect of Temperature and pH on enzyme activity
Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions without being used up. They are usually proteins that have an active site shaped to match the substrate molecule. The active site facilitates the reaction, converting the substrate to product. Enzyme activity is optimized at a certain temperature and pH level, and outside these ranges the enzyme can denature, changing shape and losing function. Enzymes are used widely in industry and biology due to their ability to accelerate reactions.
Osmosis 2
Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a partially permeable membrane from an area of higher water concentration to lower concentration. It is important in plants and animals for maintaining homeostasis, or constant internal conditions. In animal cells, too little water causes cells to shrivel and too much causes them to burst. In plant cells, osmosis allows water movement into cells to swell the cytoplasm and press against cell walls, making the cells rigid and supporting stems and leaves. The fluid outside plant cells must have a higher water concentration to keep osmosis moving water into the cells.
Water potential (osmosis) extension
Osmosis is the movement of water molecules through a semi-permeable membrane from an area of high water concentration to low water concentration until equilibrium is reached. Water potential is a measure of the kinetic energy of water molecules - pure water has a potential of 0 kPa while solutions have negative potentials as water molecules are less free to move. The concentration of solutes and number of solute particles restricts water movement by attracting and binding water molecules. Osmosis will occur if two solutions separated by a membrane have different water potentials.
Osmosis report powerpoint
The document provides instructions for conducting an experiment to investigate the effect of different sucrose concentrations on osmosis in potato cells. The experiment involves measuring the change in mass of potato slices placed in distilled water and sucrose solutions of varying molarity (0.1M, 0.3M, and 0.5M). Students are guided through developing a hypothesis, experimental method, recording results in a table and graph, drawing a conclusion, and evaluating whether the experiment was a fair test.
Osmosis 1
Osmosis is the movement of water molecules through a partially permeable membrane from an area of higher water concentration to lower water concentration.
Plants rely on osmosis for water movement. When water enters a plant cell through the cell membrane and cell wall, the cell becomes turgid and rigid as the vacuole fills with water. If water leaves the cell, the cell becomes flaccid as the vacuole shrinks.
Animal cells do not have a cell wall, so if placed in an environment with a higher water concentration than the cell, the cell will take in too much water through osmosis and burst. In a lower water concentration environment, an animal cell will lose water through
Diffusion and osmosis homework powerpoint
Diffusion is the movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to low concentration until evenly spread. All living cells rely on diffusion to obtain raw materials and remove waste through cell membranes. Osmosis is a type of diffusion where water specifically moves across a selectively permeable membrane from high to low concentration to balance water levels on both sides of the membrane. This movement can cause cells to shrink or burst depending on their environment.
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Carbohydrates
- 5. How glucose molecules join together. Two glucose molecules are linked by a condensation reaction. this results in the formation of a disaccharide called maltose. The two monosaccharides are linked by a glycosidic bond (c-o-c ) and the molecules share an oxygen atom. During the condensation reaction water is formed.
- 10. Amylose.
- 11. amylose
- 12. Amylopectin.
- 18. Structure of cellulose. Hydrogen bonds Parallel chains of β glucose molecules.