Crude drugs are derived from a variety of natural sources like plants, animals, minerals, and microorganisms. Because of their wide distribution, the arrangement or classification of drugs in a particular sequence is necessary for their easy understanding.
For pharmacognostic study crude drugs are classified as follows:
Alphabetical classification
Chemical classification
Pharmacological classification
Morphological classification
Taxonomical classification
Chemo taxonomical classification
Each of these systems of classification has its merits and demerits.
Flavonoids classification, isolation and identificationMona Ismail
Flavonoids are groups of polyphenolic compounds which are found in fruits, flowers, seeds & vegetable.
(named from the Latin word flavus meaning yellow, their colour in nature)
Monosaccharides are simple sugar molecules. These molecules have different configurations due to which various isomeric forms are formed. The structure of monosaccharides help to understand the positions of H and OH in the structure and the aldehyde and keto groups.
This slide contains sources, collection process, constituents and uses of some important plants for making medicine containing anthraquinone glycosides like Senna, Cascara Sagrada, Aloe, Rhubarb, Chrysarobin.
Carbohydrate and related compounds: Sugars and sugar containing drugs. Sucrose,
dextrose, glucose, fructose etc. Polysaccharides and polysaccharide containing drugs,
Starches, dextrins etc. Gums and mucilages, tragacanth, acacia, sterculia, sodium
alginate, agar and cellulose.
Biochemistry of carbohydrates_prepared_by_Drx_Raju_Yadav_2021RajYadav238
Carbohydrates, or carbs, are sugar molecules. Along with proteins and fats, carbohydrates are one of three main nutrients found in foods and drinks. Your body breaks down carbohydrates into glucose. Glucose, or blood sugar, is the main source of energy for your body's cells, tissues, and organs
Definition
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes, or ketones or substances that hydrolyze to yield polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones.
They usually contain hydrogen and oxygen in the same ratio as in water (2:1). Thus the name carbohydrates indicates that these compounds are hydrates of carbon.
Carbohydrates have the general formula
Cx(H2O)Y while X = Y e.g hexoses C6(H2O)6
Crude drugs are derived from a variety of natural sources like plants, animals, minerals, and microorganisms. Because of their wide distribution, the arrangement or classification of drugs in a particular sequence is necessary for their easy understanding.
For pharmacognostic study crude drugs are classified as follows:
Alphabetical classification
Chemical classification
Pharmacological classification
Morphological classification
Taxonomical classification
Chemo taxonomical classification
Each of these systems of classification has its merits and demerits.
Flavonoids classification, isolation and identificationMona Ismail
Flavonoids are groups of polyphenolic compounds which are found in fruits, flowers, seeds & vegetable.
(named from the Latin word flavus meaning yellow, their colour in nature)
Monosaccharides are simple sugar molecules. These molecules have different configurations due to which various isomeric forms are formed. The structure of monosaccharides help to understand the positions of H and OH in the structure and the aldehyde and keto groups.
This slide contains sources, collection process, constituents and uses of some important plants for making medicine containing anthraquinone glycosides like Senna, Cascara Sagrada, Aloe, Rhubarb, Chrysarobin.
Carbohydrate and related compounds: Sugars and sugar containing drugs. Sucrose,
dextrose, glucose, fructose etc. Polysaccharides and polysaccharide containing drugs,
Starches, dextrins etc. Gums and mucilages, tragacanth, acacia, sterculia, sodium
alginate, agar and cellulose.
Biochemistry of carbohydrates_prepared_by_Drx_Raju_Yadav_2021RajYadav238
Carbohydrates, or carbs, are sugar molecules. Along with proteins and fats, carbohydrates are one of three main nutrients found in foods and drinks. Your body breaks down carbohydrates into glucose. Glucose, or blood sugar, is the main source of energy for your body's cells, tissues, and organs
Definition
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes, or ketones or substances that hydrolyze to yield polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones.
They usually contain hydrogen and oxygen in the same ratio as in water (2:1). Thus the name carbohydrates indicates that these compounds are hydrates of carbon.
Carbohydrates have the general formula
Cx(H2O)Y while X = Y e.g hexoses C6(H2O)6
Mass- 3rd lecture
Ionization methods
Electron Impact (EI),
Chemical Ionization (CI),
Field Desorption (FD),
Fast Atom Bombardment (FAB),
Plasma Desorption (PD),
Matrix assisted laser desorption (MALDI),
Thermospray Mass and
Electrospray(ESI)
Analysis techniques
Magnetic Sector
Quadrupole
Ion Trap
Time-of-Flight (TOF)
Fourier Transform (FT)
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
The increased availability of biomedical data, particularly in the public domain, offers the opportunity to better understand human health and to develop effective therapeutics for a wide range of unmet medical needs. However, data scientists remain stymied by the fact that data remain hard to find and to productively reuse because data and their metadata i) are wholly inaccessible, ii) are in non-standard or incompatible representations, iii) do not conform to community standards, and iv) have unclear or highly restricted terms and conditions that preclude legitimate reuse. These limitations require a rethink on data can be made machine and AI-ready - the key motivation behind the FAIR Guiding Principles. Concurrently, while recent efforts have explored the use of deep learning to fuse disparate data into predictive models for a wide range of biomedical applications, these models often fail even when the correct answer is already known, and fail to explain individual predictions in terms that data scientists can appreciate. These limitations suggest that new methods to produce practical artificial intelligence are still needed.
In this talk, I will discuss our work in (1) building an integrative knowledge infrastructure to prepare FAIR and "AI-ready" data and services along with (2) neurosymbolic AI methods to improve the quality of predictions and to generate plausible explanations. Attention is given to standards, platforms, and methods to wrangle knowledge into simple, but effective semantic and latent representations, and to make these available into standards-compliant and discoverable interfaces that can be used in model building, validation, and explanation. Our work, and those of others in the field, creates a baseline for building trustworthy and easy to deploy AI models in biomedicine.
Bio
Dr. Michel Dumontier is the Distinguished Professor of Data Science at Maastricht University, founder and executive director of the Institute of Data Science, and co-founder of the FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable) data principles. His research explores socio-technological approaches for responsible discovery science, which includes collaborative multi-modal knowledge graphs, privacy-preserving distributed data mining, and AI methods for drug discovery and personalized medicine. His work is supported through the Dutch National Research Agenda, the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research, Horizon Europe, the European Open Science Cloud, the US National Institutes of Health, and a Marie-Curie Innovative Training Network. He is the editor-in-chief for the journal Data Science and is internationally recognized for his contributions in bioinformatics, biomedical informatics, and semantic technologies including ontologies and linked data.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
PRESENTATION ABOUT PRINCIPLE OF COSMATIC EVALUATION
Carbohydrates (Introduction)
1. Associate Professor of Pharmacognosy , Faculty of Pharmacy, Al-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt
•Associate Professor, City of Scientific Research and Technological Applications (SRTA-City), Alexandria,
Egypt
•Senior research fellow, Liaoning University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, China (20118-2019)
•Visiting scholar, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, USA (2012-2014)
Ahmed Metwaly
2. DEFINITION
I
(CH2O)n or H - C - OH
I
Carbo / hydrates
Polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones, or substances that
upon hydrolysis yield polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones.
3. - Desoxy sugars; rhamnose (C6H12O5),
cymarose (C7H14O4) and
digitoxose (C6H12O4),
- Sugar alcohols e.g. sorbitol (C6H14O6),
- Sugar acids e.g. gluconic acid (C6H12O7)
- Amino sugars e.g. glucosamine (C6H13NO5).
4. Photosynthesis
x CO2 + y H2O
Chlorophyll
Solar energy
Cx (H2O)y + x O2
Metabolism
C x (H2O) y + x O2 x CO
2 + y H2O + Energy
9. sugars are white, crystalline in shape and with sharp melting points, while
polysaccharides are white amorphous solids.
Sugars have a sweet taste (to various degrees) polysaccharides are tasteless.
monosaccharides are soluble in cold water and hot alcohol.
Polysaccharides are partially soluble in hot water and insoluble in alcohol
(cellulose is insoluble in all above mentioned solvents).
12. D & L designations are based
on the configuration about the
single asymmetric C in
glyceraldehyde.
The lower representations are
Fischer Projections. CHO
C
CH2OH
HO H
CHO
C
CH2OH
H OH
CHO
C
CH2OH
HO H
CHO
C
CH2OH
H OH
L-glyceraldehyde
D-glyceraldehyde
L-glyceraldehyde
D-glyceraldehyde
29. - AND - ANOMERS OF GLUCOSE:
➢When sugars undergo cyclization C-1 became a new chiral carbon and two
isomers exist.They are called “ Anomers”.
➢In the -anomer the OH group is directed downside and in the -anomer is
directed to the upper side.
➢These two forms have different specific rotation, in solution an equilibrium
exist between the two forms (mutarotation phenomenon).
O
H
HO
H
HO
H
OH
OH
H
H
OH
O
H
HO
H
HO
H
H
OH
H
OH
OH
O
H
OH
OH
H
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
O
H
OH
H
OH
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
Haworth formulations
Chair forms, pyranose structure
-D-glucopyranoside
-D-glucopyranoside -D-
glucopyranoside
-D-glucopyranoside
1
6
1
1
5 5
anomeric
proton
31. The evidence of cyclic configuration
▪ The existence of monosaccharides in ring rather than open chain structures and the size of the rings are
verified by X-ray analysis and is supported by:
1. The existence of two anomers for the same sugar, e.g. - and -glucose as proved by the formation of
two methyl glucosides.
2. The mutarotation phenomenon.
3. The difference in reactivity of glucose and other aldoses from true aldehydes (they do not give all the
characteristic reactions of aldehydes e.g. Schiff’s reaction).
- Aldoses and ketoses react with only one molecule of monohydric alcohol to give acetal unlike
normal aldehydes and ketones that react with two molecules (one molecule to give the hemiacetal and
another to transform the hemiacetal to acetal).
32. ▪Mutarotation: When a sugar is dissolved in water, the specific rotation of the
solution gradually changes until it reaches a constant value due to equilibrium between and
- forms ( form is more positive value)
▪ Mutarotation is the change in the optical rotation because of The change in the equilibrium
between two Anomers, when the corresponding Stereocenters interconvert.
e.g. Freshly prepared solution of -glucose has a specific rotation +18.7o. When this solution is
allowed to stand the rotation falls till reach + 52.7o.
33. Stereochemistry
C
C*
O
C*
C*
C*
CH2OH
H OH
HO H
H OH
H OH
H
C
C*
O
C*
C*
C*
CH2OH
HO H
H OH
HO H
HO H
H
D-glucose
L-glucose
Enantiomers Epimers
D-mannose D-galactose
Diastereomers
C
C*
O
C*
C*
C*
CH2OH
H OH
HO H
HO H
H OH
H
C
C*
O
C*
C*
C*
CH2OH
HO H
HO H
H OH
H OH
H
C
C*
O
C*
C*
C*
CH2OH
H OH
HO H
H OH
H OH
H
D-glucose D-mannose
C
C*
O
C*
C*
C*
CH2OH
HO H
HO H
H OH
H OH
H
Two sugars that differ in configuration at only one chiral center
Enantiomers
Diastereomers
Epimers
Mirror images
Pairs of isomers that have opposite configurations at one
or more chiral centers but are NOT mirror images
36. Aldoses (e.g., glucose) have an
aldehyde group at one end.
Ketoses (e.g., fructose) have
a keto group, usually at C2.
C
C OH
H
C H
HO
C OH
H
C OH
H
CH2OH
D-glucose
O
H
C H
HO
C OH
H
C OH
H
CH2OH
CH2OH
C O
D-fructose
37. Glucose and fructose have the same molecular formula C6H12O6. They
have different structures with different functional groups (different
connectivity). They are described as “structural isomers”.
CHO
CH
CH
CH
CH
CH2OH
OH
OH
HO
OH
CH2OH
C
CH
CH
CH
CH2OH
OH
OH
HO
D-Glucose D-Fructose
O
38. O H O H
C C
H – C – OH HO – C – H
HO – C – H H – C – OH
H – C – OH HO – C – H
H – C – OH HO – C – H
CH2OH CH2OH
D-glucose L-glucose
For sugars with more than
one chiral center, D or L
refers to the asymmetric C
farthest from the aldehyde or
keto group.
Most naturally occurring
sugars are d isomers.
39.
40. TERMS USED TO DESCRIBE ISOMERISM:
▪ Glucose and galactose are different from each other in the stereochemistry of carbon 4.
They are described as “4-epimers”.
▪ Glucose and mannose are different from each other in the stereochemistry of carbon 2.
They are described as “epimers”(also diastereoisomers)
CHO
CH
CH
CH
CH
CH2OH
OH
OH
HO
HO
D- Mannose
Epimers:
CHO
CH
CH
CH
CH
CH2OH
OH
OH
HO
OH
D-Glucose
CHO
CH
CH
CH
CH
CH2OH
OH
HO
OH
D-Galactose
HO
CHO
CH
CH
CH
CH
CH2OH
OH
OH
HO
OH
D-Glucose
43. An aldehyde can react with an
alcohol to form a hemiacetal.
A ketone can react with an alcohol
to form a hemiketal.
O C
H
R
OH
O C
R
R'
OH
C
R
R'
O
aldehyde alcohol hemiacetal
ketone alcohol hemiketal
C
H
R
O R'
R' OH
"R OH "R
+
+
44. Pentoses and hexoses can cyclize as
the ketone or aldehyde reacts with a
distal OH.
Glucose forms an intra-molecular
hemiacetal, as the C-1 aldehyde &
C-5 or react to form a 6-member
pyranose ring, named after pyran.
These representations of the cyclic sugars are called Haworth projections.
H O
OH
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
OH
H H O
OH
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
H
OH
-D-glucose -D-glucose
2
3
4
5
6
1 1
6
5
4
3 2
H
CHO
C OH
C H
HO
C OH
H
C OH
H
CH2OH
1
5
2
3
4
6
D-glucose
(linear form)
45. ▪ Any carbohydrate + Alcoholic -naphthol then add conc. H2SO4 on the wall of the
test tube Violet ring between the two layers.
Treatment with conc. mineral acid (HCl or H2SO4) leads to
dehydration of sugars and formation of the corresponding
furfural.
O CHO
O CHO
HOH2C
Pentoses
Hexoses
Furfural
(volatile)
5-Hydroxymethyl
furfural
(less volatile)
Dehydration
Dehydration
46.
47. ▪ Reaction of furfural with amines resulted in Schiff’s bases with different colors used as
color tests.
▪ (Differentiate between Pentoses and Hexoses):
▪ Pentose + conc. acid and heat, expose the vapours to Aniline acetate paper Red colour
▪ Hexoses give negative result.
(for keto-hexoses):
Sugar solution + few crystals of Resorcinol + Equal volume of
conc. HCl and warm on water bath Rose Red Colour.
48. ▪ Sugar (H2O)+ phenyl hydrazine hcl+ naac, heat (50 min), cool examine ozazone crystals
under the microscope. The ozazone are yellow, crystalline with sharp m.P. Glucose,
mannose fructose will give the same crystals (reaction involves C-1 and C-2) due to
destruction of asymmetric center at C-2.
CHO
CHOH
3 PhNH-NH2
CH=N-NH-Ph
CH=N-NH-Ph
Ozazone crystals
+ Ph-NH2 + NH3
(characteristic)
sugar
phenyl hydrazine HCl
49. O
HO
OH OH
CH2OH
HO
C6H5NHNH2
via open-chain form D-glucose
C OH
H
HO
OH
H
OH
H
CH2OH
CH
OH
H
H
HO
OH
H
OH
H
CH2OH
CH
C
H
HO
OH
H
OH
H
CH2OH
NNHC6H5
CHNHNHC6H5
C O
H
HO
OH
H
OH
H
CH2OH
CH2NHNHC6H5
C6H5NHNH2
C NNHC6H5
H
HO
OH
H
OH
H
CH2OH
CH2NHNHC6H5
C N
H
HO
OH
H
OH
H
CH2OH
CH NH NHC6H5
NHC6H5
H
NH
NNHC6H5
C6H5NHNH2
-NH3
-C6H5NH2
CH
C
H
HO
OH
H
OH
H
CH2OH
NNHC6H5
NNHC6H5
D-Mannose phenylosazone
or D-glucoe phenylosazone
50. CH
C
H
HO
OH
H
OH
H
CH2OH
NNHC6H5
NNHC6H5
D-Mannose phenylosazone
or D-glucoe phenylosazone
N N
H
N
R
NHC6H5
C6H5
Where R =
HO H
H OH
CH2OH
H OH
· Notice that the asymmetry at C-2 is lost, so that D-glucose, D-mannose, and D-fructose
all form the same osazone.
·The reaction does not continue further down the chain to C-3 by a similar series of steps
possibly because of stabilization of the osazone due to hydrogen-bonding
51.
52. n
COOH
CH2OH
(H OH)
CHO
CH2OH
(H OH)n Mild Oxidation
Br2
CHO
CH2OH
(H OH)n
HNO3
Strong Oxidation n
COOH
COOH
(H OH)
Glucaric acid
(Acyclic St.)
Protection
Oxidation
CHO
CH2OH
(H OH)n
Glucuronic acid
(cyclic St.)
n
CHO
COOH
(H OH)
Gluconic acid
(Acyclic St.)
53. ▪ These are oxidizing agents like Bromine water (or I2) that
convert the CHO group to COOH to produce “onic acids”.
▪ N.B. Ca gluconate (I.V. or orally) is used in case of calcium therapy,
Ferrous gluconate (I.V. or orally) is used in iron deficiency.
CHO
CH
CH
CH
CH
CH2OH
OH
OH
HO
OH
D-Glucose
COOH
CH
CH
CH
CH
CH2OH
OH
OH
HO
OH
Gluconic acid
I2 or Fehling's
54. ▪ These are oxidizing agents like HNO3 that convert the CHO and CH2OH group to COOH to
produce “aric acids”.
CHO
CH
CH
CH
CH
CH2OH
OH
OH
HO
OH
D-Glucose
COOH
CH
CH
CH
CH
COOH
OH
OH
HO
OH
Saccharic acid
HNO3
55. ▪Glalactaric acid (Mucic acid) test:
▪Oxidation of galactose resulted in the formation of
Galactaric acid. It is a meso compound insoluble in
water and have zero optical rotation.
CHO
CH
CH
CH
CH
CH2OH
OH
HO
OH
D-Galactose
COOH
CH
CH
CH
CH
COOH
OH
HO
OH
Galactaric acid
HNO3
HO HO
56. ▪ It is carried out by first protecting the – CHO group, followed by oxidation of the -
CH2OH group, or in one step by using enzyme to give aldouronic acid, e.g. oxidation of
glucose into glucuronic acid.
CHO
CH
CH
CH
CH
CH2OH
OH
OH
HO
OH
D-Glucose
CHO
CH
CH
CH
CH
COOH
OH
OH
HO
OH
Glucuronic acid
O
COOH
H
H
OHOH
H
H
OH
OH
H
57. ▪ This resulted in the reduction of the CHO to CH2OH producing “sugar alcohols”. Sodium borohydride or
H2/pt are examples of reducing agents.
▪ E.G. Glucose reduced to sorbitol which act as mild laxative while mannose reduced to mannitol which is
used as osmotic diuretic, vasodilator and in lab. Diagnosis of kidney function.
CHO
CH
CH
CH
CH
CH2OH
OH
OH
HO
OH
D-Glucose
CH2OH
CH
CH
CH
CH
CH2OH
OH
OH
HO
OH
Sorbitol
H2/Pt
58. 58
CH O
HO H
HO H
H OH
H OH
CH2OH
D-mannose
CH2OH
HO H
HO H
H OH
H OH
CH2OH
NaBH4
H2O
D-mannitol
"does not promote tooth decay"
"not non-caloric"