This document discusses analytical chemistry methods, including both classical and instrumental methods. Classical methods involved separating, identifying, and quantifying analytes using techniques like precipitation, extraction, distillation, and titration. Instrumental methods measure physical properties like conductivity, potential, light absorption, and fluorescence to analyze inorganic, organic, and biochemical analytes. Modern electroanalytical techniques provide very low detection limits and characterization information by measuring current, potential, resistance, capacitance, or charge related to redox processes at electrode interfaces. Common electroanalytical methods are discussed, along with fundamental terminology and concepts in electrochemistry.
Titrimetric analysis is a method of analysis in which a solution of the substance being determined is treated with a solution of a suitable reagent of exactly known concentration. The reagent is added to the substance until the amount added is equivalent to the amount of substance to be determined.
Liquid liquid extraction useful for B. Pharmacy students. solvent extraction is one of the separation technique and it is the most common method adopted in the field of analysis
Titrimetric analysis is a method of analysis in which a solution of the substance being determined is treated with a solution of a suitable reagent of exactly known concentration. The reagent is added to the substance until the amount added is equivalent to the amount of substance to be determined.
Liquid liquid extraction useful for B. Pharmacy students. solvent extraction is one of the separation technique and it is the most common method adopted in the field of analysis
Lecture-02.Classifications of Qualitative and Quantitative AnalysisUniversity of Okara
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wObwXIt1ZQc&t=123s
Basic Concept of Analytical Chemistry
Meaning: The word analytical comes from the Ancient Greek ana- "up, and lysis "a loosening"). Collectively it means breaking-up" or "an untying.
Definition: The branch of chemistry which deals with the analysis of matter, its identification, and its components. Thus, the process of chemical analysis are of two type;
(1) Qualitative Analysis (2) Quantitative Analysis
Classifications of Analytical Techniques
There are two types of techniques
(1) Classical technique (2) Instrumental techniques
The classical techniques are qualitative as well as quantitative. The qualitative analysis is based on identifying and determining the analyte based on some properties specific to the analyte like boiling point, melting point, optical activities or refractive index, solubilities, and color. E.g., the Boling point of water is 100oC, the melting point of sugar is 186 °C, the refractive index of water is 1.333, test color of K is purple or the color of litmus. paper indicating the acidity or basicity of a compound. When sulphuretted hydrogen (H2S) is passed through a solution containing Arsenic, a yellowish precipitate is formed indicating the presence of arsenic. If the precipitate is brown, is brown, it indicates Tin.
The quantitative analysis is based on the quantity of the analyte. Like determining the volume of the analyte ( volumetric and gasometric analysis) and weight of the analyte (gravimetric analysis.
2) Instrumental methods can be both qualitative and quantitative. The qualitative analysis likewise relies on detecting and determining the analyte based on certain characteristics. Elements (C, H, N, S) of organic compounds using a CHNS analyzer, heavy metals using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer, and alkali and alkaline earth metals (K, Na, Ca, Mg) using a flame photometer. At the molecular level, infrared (IR) spectroscopy, Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, mass spectrometry, and thin-layer chromatography are used to examine substances. These techniques tell us the nature of a compound. Some of these techniques can also be used for quantitative purposes as well.
Reference Books:
Skoog, D. A., West, P. M., Holler, F. J., Crouch, S. R., Fundamentals of AnalyticalChemistry, 9th ed., Brooks Cole Publishing Company, (2013).
Christian, G. D., Analytical Chemistry. 6th ed., John-Wiley & Sons, New York, (2006).
Harris, D. C., Quantitative Chemical Analysis, 8th ed., W. H. Freeman and Company, New York, USA, (2011).
Bender, G.T. 1987. “Principles of Chemical Instrumentation” W.B. Saunders Co., London.
Reilley, C. 1993. Laboratory Manual of Analytical Chemistry. Allyn& Bacon, London.
Hargis, L.G. 1988. “Analytical Chemistry: Printice Hall Publishers, London.
ION CHROMATOGRAPHY , THE CHROMATOGRAPHY BASED ON ITS TYPES LIKE RESINS AND MORE ITS TYPES OFION EXCHANGE RESINS, THE DIFFERENT TYPES HAVE DIFFERENT ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS
Lecture-02.Classifications of Qualitative and Quantitative AnalysisUniversity of Okara
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wObwXIt1ZQc&t=123s
Basic Concept of Analytical Chemistry
Meaning: The word analytical comes from the Ancient Greek ana- "up, and lysis "a loosening"). Collectively it means breaking-up" or "an untying.
Definition: The branch of chemistry which deals with the analysis of matter, its identification, and its components. Thus, the process of chemical analysis are of two type;
(1) Qualitative Analysis (2) Quantitative Analysis
Classifications of Analytical Techniques
There are two types of techniques
(1) Classical technique (2) Instrumental techniques
The classical techniques are qualitative as well as quantitative. The qualitative analysis is based on identifying and determining the analyte based on some properties specific to the analyte like boiling point, melting point, optical activities or refractive index, solubilities, and color. E.g., the Boling point of water is 100oC, the melting point of sugar is 186 °C, the refractive index of water is 1.333, test color of K is purple or the color of litmus. paper indicating the acidity or basicity of a compound. When sulphuretted hydrogen (H2S) is passed through a solution containing Arsenic, a yellowish precipitate is formed indicating the presence of arsenic. If the precipitate is brown, is brown, it indicates Tin.
The quantitative analysis is based on the quantity of the analyte. Like determining the volume of the analyte ( volumetric and gasometric analysis) and weight of the analyte (gravimetric analysis.
2) Instrumental methods can be both qualitative and quantitative. The qualitative analysis likewise relies on detecting and determining the analyte based on certain characteristics. Elements (C, H, N, S) of organic compounds using a CHNS analyzer, heavy metals using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer, and alkali and alkaline earth metals (K, Na, Ca, Mg) using a flame photometer. At the molecular level, infrared (IR) spectroscopy, Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, mass spectrometry, and thin-layer chromatography are used to examine substances. These techniques tell us the nature of a compound. Some of these techniques can also be used for quantitative purposes as well.
Reference Books:
Skoog, D. A., West, P. M., Holler, F. J., Crouch, S. R., Fundamentals of AnalyticalChemistry, 9th ed., Brooks Cole Publishing Company, (2013).
Christian, G. D., Analytical Chemistry. 6th ed., John-Wiley & Sons, New York, (2006).
Harris, D. C., Quantitative Chemical Analysis, 8th ed., W. H. Freeman and Company, New York, USA, (2011).
Bender, G.T. 1987. “Principles of Chemical Instrumentation” W.B. Saunders Co., London.
Reilley, C. 1993. Laboratory Manual of Analytical Chemistry. Allyn& Bacon, London.
Hargis, L.G. 1988. “Analytical Chemistry: Printice Hall Publishers, London.
ION CHROMATOGRAPHY , THE CHROMATOGRAPHY BASED ON ITS TYPES LIKE RESINS AND MORE ITS TYPES OFION EXCHANGE RESINS, THE DIFFERENT TYPES HAVE DIFFERENT ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS
Cyclic voltammetry is the most widely used technique for acquiring qualitative information about electrochemical reactions. The power of cyclic voltammetry results from its ability to rapidly provide considerable information on the thermodynamics of redox processes and the kinetics of heterogeneous electron-transfer reactions and on coupled chemical reactions or adsorption processes. Cyclic voltammetry is often the first experiment performed in an electroanalytical study. In particular, it offers a rapid location of redox potentials of the electroactive species and convenient evaluation of the effect of media upon the redox process.
Knocking Door of Cyclic Voltammetry - cv of CV by Monalin MishraMONALINMISHRA
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Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
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TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
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The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
2. Classical Methods of Analysis
Early years of chemistry
•Separation of analytes by precipitation, extraction, or
distillation.
•Qualitative analysis by reaction of analytes with
reagents that yielded products that could be
recognized by their colors, boiling or melting points,
solubilities, optical activities, or refractive indexes.
•Quantitative analysis by gravimetric or by titrimetric
techniques.
3. Instrumental Methods
•Measurement of physical properties of
analytes - such as conductivity, electrode
potential, light absorption or emission, mass-
to-charge ratio, and fluorescence-began to be
employed for quantitative analysis of
inorganic, organic, and biochemical analytes
•Efficient chromatographic separation
techniques are used for the separation of
components of complex mixtures.
•Instrumental Methods of analysis (collective
name for newer methods for separation and
determination of chemical species.)
6. Electroanalytical Chemistry
•A group of quantitative analytical methods that
are based upon the electrical properties
(electrical response) of a solution of the analyte
(chemical system) when it is made part of an
electrochemical cell.
•Chemical System: Electrolyte; measuring
electrical circute; Elcrodes
7. Electroanalytical techniques are capable
of producing very low detection limits.
Electroanalytical techniques can provide
a lot of characterization information
about
electrochemically addressable systems.
Stoichiometry and rate of charge
transfer.
Rate of mass transfer.
Extent of adsorption or chemisorption.
Rates and equilibrium constants for
chemical reactions.
8. •Inexpensive
•Used for ionic species not total concentration
•Responds to ionic activity rather than concentration
•Ion selective electrodes and developing of the
measuring devices in voltammetry made wider spread of
the methods
9. Electrochemistry - study of redox
processes at interfaces
Heterogeneous
So two reactions occurring:
oxidation
reduction
10. • For the reaction,
O + ne-
R
• Oxidation: R O + ne-
– loss of electrons by R
• Reduction: O + ne-
R
– gain of electrons by O
→←
→←
→←
11. Oxidant = oxidizing agent
reactant which oxidizes another reactant
and which is itself reduced
Reductant = reducing agent
reactant which reduces another reactant
and which is itself oxidized
12.
13. Electrochemical Cells
•Cathode is electrode at which reduction occurs.
•Anode is electrode at which oxidation occurs.
•Indicator and Reference electrodes
•Junction potential is small potential at the interface
between two electrolytic solutions that differ in
composition.
14. Galvanic cells produce electrical
energy.
Electrolytic cells consume energy.
If the cell is a chemically reversible
cell, then it can be made electrolytic
by connecting the negative terminal
of a DC power supply to the zinc
electrode and the positive terminal to
the copper electrode.
21. Types of Electroanalytical Procedures
• Based on relationship between analyte
concentration and electrical quantities such as
current, potential, resistance (or conductance),
capacitance, or charge.
• Electrical measurement serves to establish end-
point of titration of analyte.
• Electrical current converts analyte to form that can
be measured gravimetrically or volumetrically.
22. METHOD MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLE
APPLICATIONS
QUALIT-
ATIVE
INFORM-
ATION
DESIRED
MINIMUM
SAMPLE
SIZE
DETECTION
LIMIT
COMMENTS
Voltammetry
(Polarography)
(amperometric
titrations)
(chronoamperometry)
Current as a function of
voltage at a polarized
electrode
Quantitative analysis of
electrochemically
reducible organic or
inorganic material
Reversibility of
reaction
100 µg 10-1
-10 –3
ppm
10 µg
A large number of voltage
programs may be used.
Pulse Polarography and
Differential Pulse
Polarography improve
detection limits.
Potentiometry
(potentiometric
titration)
(chronopotentiometry)
Potential at 0 current Quantitative analysis of
ions in solutions, pH.
Defined by
electrode (e.g.,
F-
, Cl-
, Ca2+
)
100 µg 10-2
-102
ppm Measures activity rather than
concentration.
Conductimetry
(conductometric
titrations)
Resistance or
conductance at inert
electrodes
Quantification of an
ionized species, titrations
Little qualitative
identification
information
100 µg Commonly used as a detector
for ion chromatography.
Coulometry Current and time as
number of Faradays
Exhaustive electrolysis Little qualitative
identification
information
100 µg 10-9
-1 g High precision possible.
Anodic Stripping
Voltammetry
(Electrodeposition)
Weight Quantitative trace
analysis of
electrochemically
reducible metals that
form amalgams with
mercury
Oxidation
potential permits
identification of
metal.
100 µg 10-3
-103
g
10 ng
Electrodeposition step
provides improved detection
limits over normal
voltammetry.
23. Summary of Common Electroanalytical Methods
Quantity measured in parentheses.
I = current, E = potential, R = resistance,
G = conductance, Q = quantity of
charge, t = time, vol = volume of a
standard solution, wt = weight
of an electrodeposited species
24. Fundamental TerminologyFundamental Terminology
Faradaic Procsess
• Charge is transferred across the electrode solution interface.
Redox process takes place
Non-Faradaic Process
• A transitory changes in current or potential
as a result of changes in the structure of
the electrode-solution interface e.g adsorption
• The electrode may be in a potential region that
does not facilitate occurrence of a charge transfer
reaction. The process is thermodynamically or
kinetically unfavorable
26. • Electrodes at which no charge transfer takes
place. Only nonfaradaic process takes place
regardless of the applied potential
• E.g. Hg electrode in contact of NaCl solution at
pot. 0 to –2 V.
• Capacitance of the electrode, C = q / V
q = charge in Coulombs
V = voltage across the capacitor
• Current, i , ∝electrode capacity and resistance of
solution
• With constant electrode area, i, dies within a
fraction of second
•With DME, i, dies more slowly.
27. •
When a substance is added to the
electrolyte and it is oxidized or
reduced
at a particular potential the current
flows and the electrode is
depolarized,
(Non-polarizable electrode). The
substance is called “Depolarizer”
28. • When the Faradaic process is rapid, oxidized
and reduced species will be in equilibrium and
the
Nernst equation is applicable. The process is
then
reversible. The elctrode is call reversible
elctrode?
• Reversibility and irreversibility depends upon
* Rate of electrode process
* Rapidity of the electrochemical
measurement
29. overpotential
• If the electrode process is very fast
overpotential is zero
(Fast charge transfer, mass transport, and
possibly
adsorption or chemical reactions should be
achieved).
The electrode is then nonpolarizable
electrode.
• When the system shows overpotential it is
polarized
* Activation polarization: Charge transfer is
slow
* Concentration polarization: movement of
depolarizer or product is slow
30. For: O + ne-
= R
5 separate events must occur:
O must be successfully transported from bulk
solution (mass transport)
O must be adsorbed transiently onto electrode
surface (non-faradaic)
Charge transfer must occur between electrode
and O (faradaic)
R must desorb from electrode surface (non-
faradaic)
R must be transported away from electrode
surface back into bulk solution (mass
transport)
31. Modes of Electrochemical Mass Transport
• Three Modes:
– Diffusion
– Migration
– Convection
• Natural
• Mechanical
32. Migration
• Movement of a charged species due to a
potential gradient
• Opposites attract
• Mechanism by which charge passes through
electrolyte
• Base or Supporting electrolyte (KCl or
HNO3) is used to minimize (make it
negligible) migration of electroactive species
(makes it move under diffusion only)
33. Convection
•Movement of mass due to a natural or
mechanical force
•At long times ( > 10 s), diffusing ions set
up a natural eddy of matter
34. Diffusion
•Movement of mass due to a concentration
gradient
•Occurs whenever there is chemical change at a
surface, e.g., O → R
•Diffusion is controlled by Cottrel equation
• it = (nFAD1/2
C)/π1/2
t1/2
• it = curent at time t; n= # electrons involved
A = area of the elctroe; C=concentration of