The document discusses the cardiovascular system and physiology of the heart. It describes the components of the cardiovascular system including the heart, blood vessels, and blood. It explains the basic functions of these parts, including that the heart acts as a pump to circulate blood through two circuits - the pulmonary and systemic circulations. It also provides details on the anatomy and functions of the heart chambers and valves, as well as blood flow, vessels, heart sounds, and blood characteristics.
The human heart heart length, width, and thickness are 12 cm, 8.5 cm, and 6 cm, respectively. In addition, the mean weight of the heart is 280-340 g in males and 230-280 g in females.
The human heart heart length, width, and thickness are 12 cm, 8.5 cm, and 6 cm, respectively. In addition, the mean weight of the heart is 280-340 g in males and 230-280 g in females.
This presentation provides a clear understanding of the physiology of the circulatory system. It focus lies on the division and component of the circulatory system, the three major function of the circulatory system, blood composition, structure of the heart, blood circulation; pulmonary and systemic circuit, valves of the heart, the pathway of blood flow through the heart, the cardiac cycle, pressure changes during the cardiac cycle; systole and diastole, cardiac output, heart sounds among others.
This presentation was designed by Fasama H. Kollie and presented by Benetta N. Kekulah, Cordelia Capehart and Abraham Peters.
This presentation is an overview of the description of the 4 stages of the cardiac cycle (atrial diastole, atrial systole, ventricular systole, ventricular diastole) as well as explaining the mechanism of the cardiac cycle.
This presentation provides a clear understanding of the physiology of the circulatory system. It focus lies on the division and component of the circulatory system, the three major function of the circulatory system, blood composition, structure of the heart, blood circulation; pulmonary and systemic circuit, valves of the heart, the pathway of blood flow through the heart, the cardiac cycle, pressure changes during the cardiac cycle; systole and diastole, cardiac output, heart sounds among others.
This presentation was designed by Fasama H. Kollie and presented by Benetta N. Kekulah, Cordelia Capehart and Abraham Peters.
This presentation is an overview of the description of the 4 stages of the cardiac cycle (atrial diastole, atrial systole, ventricular systole, ventricular diastole) as well as explaining the mechanism of the cardiac cycle.
B. Pharm SEM -I; Unit V- Cardiovascular system. Heart – anatomy of heart, blood circulation, elements of conduction system of heart and heart beat, its
regulation by autonomic nervous system, cardiac output, cardiac cycle. Regulation of
blood pressure, pulse, electrocardiogram
An introduction to system dynamics & feedback loopbhupendra kumar
System dynamics focuses on the structure and behavior of systems composed of interacting feedback loops.
System Dynamics helps in designing the interconnections and structures to give more confidence and predictability in behavior of the systems.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
2. Contents
Components of the cardiovascular system (CVS)
The systemic and pulmonary circulation
Basic functions of the various parts of the CVS.
General function of the CVS.
Physiological anatomy of the heart.
Blood vessels
Heart sounds
Characteristics of blood
3. Cardiovascular system
In order to pump blood through the body,
the heart is connect to the vascular system
of the body.
It is the closed system.
It is designed to transport oxygen and
nutrients to the cells of the body and remove
carbon dioxide and metabolic waste products
from the body.
4. Components of CVS
Heart:
It is a pump composed of 4 chambers (2 atria & 2
ventricles.
The heart provides the driving force for the
cardiovascular system.
BloodVessels:
The blood vessels are systems of tubes including:
Arteries and arterioles which carry the blood
from the heart to all parts of the body.
The arteries serve as distribution channels to the
organs.
5. Components of CVS
Venules and veins which carry the blood back
from the tissues to the heart.
The veins serve as blood reservoirs and collect
the blood to return it to the heart.
Blood capillaries which form a network of fine
vessels connecting the arterioles with theVenules.
The blood capillaries are the sites of exchange of
gases (O2 & CO2), nutrients and waste products
between blood and tissues.
6. Construction of CVS
The cardiovascular system is actually
made up of two major circulatory
systems, acting together.
The right side of the heart pumps blood
to the lungs through the pulmonary
artery (PA), pulmonary capillaries, and
then returns blood to the left atrium
through the pulmonary veins (PV).
The left side of the heart pumps blood
to the rest of the body through the
aorta, arteries, arterioles, systemic
capillaries, and then returns blood to
the right atrium through theVenules and
great veins
7. In the cardiovascular system, blood passes through
two circulations in series. One full circulation
consists of these two circulations together. Both
circulations start and end in the heart.These two
circulations are:
The systemic (or greater or high-pressure)circulation:
It starts in the left ventricle → the aorta → systemic
arteries → systemic capillaries → systemic veins →
superior and inferior vena cava → ends in the right
atrium.
The pulmonary (or lesser or low-pressure) circulation:
It starts in the right ventricle → the pulmonary trunk
→ pulmonary arteries → pulmonary capillaries →
pulmonary veins → ends in the left atrium.
8. The two circulations are in series. So, blood finishes
one circulation to start the other.
This allows the whole blood volume to carry out its
respiratory function more efficiently as blood goes
once through the systemic capillaries and once
through the pulmonary capillaries.
Thus, both ventricles must pump the same volume
of blood during any significant time interval because
of the series arrangement of the systemic and
pulmonary circulations.
12. From an Engineering stand point, systemic
circulation is a high resistance circuit with a large
pressure gradient between the arteries and veins.
Heart is analogous to the pump but the analogy to
pump and hydraulic piping system should not be
used too discriminately.(Blood is not a pure
Newtonian fluid).
Muscle contraction of the left side of heart is larger
and stronger than that of right heart because of the
greater pressure required for the systemic
circulation.
13. a)HEART:
1) The left side of the heart (high pressure side) acts a
pressure pump that pumps blood into the systemic
arteries at a sufficient pressure that drives blood to the
tissues.
2) The right side of the heart (low pressure side) pumps
blood into the pulmonary arteries at a relatively lower
pressure that drives blood into the lungs.
b) BLOOD VESSELS:
1) The arteries: the aorta and the pulmonary artery are
elastic arteries i.e. they have the properties of stretch
(=distension or compliance) and recoil.
During ventricular contraction (systole), they distend by
the blood ejected into them; and energy is at load in their
walls.
Basic Function of the various
parts of the CVS
14. During ventricular relaxation (diastole), this energy is
released causing elastic recoil of their walls, which acts as
an additional pump to blood during diastole.
Thus on efficient pressure is maintained during systole and
diastole, resulting in a continuous blood flow through the
tissues.
2) The arterioles are resistance vessels that act as variable
resistors because their diameters continuously undergo
changes in order to regulate the amount of blood flow into
the capillaries. Therefore, the arterioles are considered the
“taps” regulating blood flow to the tissues.
.
15. 3) The veins act as capacitance vessels (volume reservoir) that
hold most of the blood volume.
Veins have a high distending capacity (=high compliance) and
they can store or mobilize blood depending upon the
underlying condition.
GENERAL FUNCTION OFTHE CVS:
The normal function of the CVS is to maintain homeostasis
(i.e. a constant optimum internal environment).Thus, in spite
of continuous metabolic activity of the tissue cells,
homeostasis is maintained by continuous adequate blood flow
to the tissues.
17. PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY
of the HEART
The HEART is the great central pump of the CVS. It lies in
the left side of the thoracic cavity partly behind the sternum
and between the right and left lungs. It is covered by a
fibrous sac called the pericardium.
GENERAL STRUCTURE OF THE HEART
The heart is a hollow muscular organ. Its walls are
composed of a muscle called the cardiac muscle or the
myocardium
.
18.
19.
20. Cardiac Chambers & their functions
The human HEART is consist of four chambers:
Two atria (right and left) which are separated from each
other by the interatrial septum.
Two ventricles (right and left) which are separated from
each other by the interventricular septum.
The wall of the left ventricle is about 3 times thicker than
the wall of the right ventricle.
The ventricular myocardium (wall) is much thicker and
stronger than the atrial myocardium (wall). The atrial muscle
(of both atria) is completely separated from the ventricular
muscle (of both ventricles) by a fibrous ring called AV ring
(atrioventricular ring).
21. The atria have 2 main functions:
1) They act as blood reservoir for the blood returning
back to the heart.
2) They act as pumps (primer pumps). Atrial
contraction pushes about 25% of the blood filling
the ventricles during ventricular diastole and about
75% of the blood that ventricles during their
diastole pass passively i.e. by its own weight.
The ventricles, on the other hand , are the powerful
cardiac pumps filling the arteries with blood. The right
ventricle (pulmonary pumps) pushes blood into the
pulmonary arteries and the left ventricle (systemic
pump) pushes blood into the aorta during ventricular
systole.
22. Cardiac Valves and their functions
The human heart contains four valves
Two atrioventricular valves (AV valves) between the
atria and the ventricles:
- Tricuspid valve between the right atrium and the right
ventricle.
- Mitral or tricuspid valve between the left atrium and
there left ventricle.
Two semi lunar valves:
- Aortic valve between the left ventricle and the aorta.
- Pulmonary valve between the right ventricle and the
pulmonary trunk.
23. Functions of the cardiac valves
The cardiac valves allow for the blood to pass only in one
direction i.e.
- The AV valves allow for the blood to pass from the atria into
the ventricles during ventricular diastole. During ventricular
systole, the AV valves close to prevent back flow of blood from
the ventricles into the atria.
- The semi lunar valves allow for the blood to pass from the
ventricles into the arteries during ventricular systole. During
ventricular diastole, these valves prevent back flow of blood
from the arteries into the ventricles (as these valves become
closed during ventricular diastole).
24. It should be noted that:
a)The valves open or close depending upon the
pressure gradient of the blood on both sides of the
valves e.g.
The AV valves:
- Open when the atrial pressure becomes higher than
the ventricular pressure or
- Close when the ventricular pressure becomes higher
that the atrial pressure.
The semi lunar valves:
- Open when the ventricular pressure becomes higher
than the arterial pressure and
- Close when the arterial pressure becomes higher
than the ventricular pressure.
25. The right ventricle pumps relatively large volumes
of blood at a low pressure through the pulmonary
circulation (the right ventricle is essentially flow
generator).
The normal cross-section of the right ventricle is
crescent-shaped.
If the right ventricle must eject blood against a high
pressure for prolonged periods (as seen in certain
pulmonary diseases), it assumes a much more
cylindrical appearance and there is a thickening of
the right ventricular free wall (right ventricular
hypertrophy).
The right ventricle
26. The left ventricle pumps blood through the
systemic circulation.
It is cylindrical in shape and normally has a
thicker wall than does the right ventricle.
The left ventricle works much harder than the
right ventricle because of the higher pressure in
the systemic circulation (the left ventricle is
essentially pressure generator).
Consequently, the left ventricle is more
commonly affected by disease processes than is
the right ventricle.
The left ventricle
27. During ventricular systole, blood is pumped into
the circulation.
During diastole, the pumping of blood stops and
the ventricles get filled with blood.
In this way, the flow of blood from the ventricles
into the systemic and pulmonary circulations is
an intermittent pulsatile flow.
Blood flow from the heart
28. The heart of a normal adult male beats automatically
and regularly at a rate of 75 beats/minute during rest.
The normal range of heart rate is between 60 – 100.
The heart rate is under neural control. Cardiac
sympathetic efferent activity increases the heart rate,
whereas parasympathetic (vagal) efferent impulses
decreases heart rate.
The stroke volume for each ventricle averages 70 ml
of blood, and a normal heart rate is approximately 70-
75 beats/minute; therefore, the cardiac output at rest is
approximately 5 L/min.
34. As the blood flows from the arterial to the venous
side of the circulation, it meets resistance because
of the smaller caliber of the vessels and the viscous
nature of the blood.This is called the peripheral
resistance.
It is an important factor in generating and
maintaining the arterial blood pressure.
Vasoconstriction of the small vessels increases the
peripheral resistance, which in turn elevates the
arterial blood pressure.Whilst vasodilatation
decreases the resistance and lowers the pressure.
The peripheral resistance
35. Pressure Drop in theVascular
System
LARGE ARTERIES
SMALL ARTERIES
ARTERIOLES
CAPILLARIES
VENULES &VEINS
INSIDE DIAMETER
SMALL LARGELARGE
ELASTICTISSUE
MUSCLE
INSIDE DIAMETER
37. * The wall of the left ventricle is much thicker
(15 mm) than the wall of the right ventricle (5
mm), yet the capacities and outputs of both
ventricles are equal.
* The thickness of the ventricular wall reflects
the pressure load on the ventricle.The
pressure load on the left ventricle (the aortic
pressure) is much higher than the pressure
load on the right ventricle (the pulmonary
arterial pressure).
38. Heart Sounds
Heart sounds are the noises generated by the
beating heart and the resultant flow of blood through
it.
Specifically, the sounds reflect the turbulence created
when the heart valves snap shut.
In cardiac auscultation, an examiner may use a
stethoscope to listen for these unique and distinct
sounds that provide important auditory data regarding
the condition of the heart.
In healthy adults, there are two normal heart sounds
often described as a lub and a dub (or dup), that occur
in sequence with each heartbeat.
These are the first heart sound (S1) and second
heart sound (S2), produced by the closing of the AV
valves and semilunar valves, respectively.
39. Functions and Characteristics of the
Blood
Blood is the only liquid tissue in the body. It is
a connective tissue.
Consists of formed elements (cells and cell
fragments) in a liquid intercellular matrix
(plasma)
Average adult blood volume is around 5 liters
(8% of body weight)
40. Blood Functions
Transportation: Blood transports oxygen and
nutrients to cells, CO2 and waste away from
cells, hormones to target tissues
Regulation: Helps maintain stable body
temperature, pH, water and electrolyte levels
Protection: Clotting prevents fluid loss, white
blood cells protect body against disease