This document discusses research questions and the process of formulating research problems. It begins by defining research and different types of research. It then covers developing research questions, including originating questions from prior literature and formulating questions that are feasible, interesting, novel, ethical and relevant. The document outlines steps for formulating a research problem, including selecting a broad subject area and narrowing it to specific questions. It stresses reviewing literature throughout the process and considering available data, resources, and ethics. Finally, it discusses writing research protocols that specify predictors, outcomes, populations and study plans to address potential problems.
What is and what isn’t a good research question? Discover how to develop an impactful and significant research question by asking the right questions related to your field and area of study. This is a presentation developed through the Graduate Resource Center at the University of New Mexico.
In this lecture you will learn about the importance of research questions, how they related to research problems, the properties of good research questions, and the differences between quantitative and qualitative research questions.
RESEARCH DESIGN , Sampling Designs , Dependent and Independent Variables, Extraneous Variables, Hypothesis, Exploratory Research Design, Descriptive and Diagnostic Research
Research Methodology Introduction ch1
MEANING OF RESEARCH, OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH,TYPES OF RESEARCH,Research Approaches ,Research Methods versus Methodology,research process guideline:
What is and what isn’t a good research question? Discover how to develop an impactful and significant research question by asking the right questions related to your field and area of study. This is a presentation developed through the Graduate Resource Center at the University of New Mexico.
In this lecture you will learn about the importance of research questions, how they related to research problems, the properties of good research questions, and the differences between quantitative and qualitative research questions.
RESEARCH DESIGN , Sampling Designs , Dependent and Independent Variables, Extraneous Variables, Hypothesis, Exploratory Research Design, Descriptive and Diagnostic Research
Research Methodology Introduction ch1
MEANING OF RESEARCH, OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH,TYPES OF RESEARCH,Research Approaches ,Research Methods versus Methodology,research process guideline:
Research is the systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled observations that may lead to the development of generalizations, principles, or theories, resulting in prediction and possible control of events .
This is lesson 5 of the course on Research Methodology conducted at the Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities of the Rajarata University of Sri Lanka
Review of literature is one of the most important steps in the research process. It is an account of what is already known about a particular phenomenon.
Literature review is a laborious task, but it is essential if the research process is to be successful.
Reflections on the Implementation of Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program (a.k...Vanessa Garingo
Together with friends and classmates, I conducted a research focusing on the Implementation of Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program. This presentation was actually used by the team to show a sneak peak of what we have gathered and learned.
Research is the systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled observations that may lead to the development of generalizations, principles, or theories, resulting in prediction and possible control of events .
This is lesson 5 of the course on Research Methodology conducted at the Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities of the Rajarata University of Sri Lanka
Review of literature is one of the most important steps in the research process. It is an account of what is already known about a particular phenomenon.
Literature review is a laborious task, but it is essential if the research process is to be successful.
Reflections on the Implementation of Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program (a.k...Vanessa Garingo
Together with friends and classmates, I conducted a research focusing on the Implementation of Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program. This presentation was actually used by the team to show a sneak peak of what we have gathered and learned.
Research question, criteria, formulation, and relation to research designs.Tarek Tawfik Amin
Research question, research problems, sources of research questions, formulation, relation to the type of designs, criteria, testing novelty and originality
Presentation held at Dundee University on 19 January 2011 for postgraduate students for the purpose of providing guidelines and advice on how to complete their PhD research degrees, successfully.
Being a PhD student: Experiences and ChallengesFaegheh Hasibi
These slides provide some guidance to the prospective PhD students. The content reflects my personal experiences together with useful feedbacks I received from my colleagues/friends.
Methodology is the systematic, theoretical analysis of the methods applied to a field of study.
It comprises the theoretical analysis of the body of methods and principles associated with a branch of knowledge.
Methodology is useful to guide and help in order to obtain the objectives of a research project.
This consists of the purpose, assumptions, limitations, philosophy, strategy, data collection method, sampling method, scaling, data analysis, validity and reliability of the research.
The methodological choices reported give guidelines for the way which should collect necessary information for this study investigation and analyzing matters.
Marketing has never been more interesting than now. The Internet and other new digital technologies are not only transforming the practice of marketing but also the way we think about it (Wymbs 2011). The main benefit of marketing automation is that it can help businesses grow sales and increase brand awareness by maximizing their email contact lists, streamlining processes for lead generation with automated forms or emails, as well as executing personalized campaigns based on information about a prospect's needs. Today, consumers have more choices, more services, more media, more messages, and more digital conversations than ever. Digital-driven changes are not only affecting private consumer’s behavior
Cancer Epidemiology, Risk factors for most common types, mortality, prevention and yeild of cancer prevention. gender, geography, infections, tobacco, environmental riskk factors.
Community diagnosis is vital in health planning, evaluation and needs assessment, several types of indicators are valid to be used for community diagnosis including Socio-economic, demographics, health system, and living arrangements.
Diagnostic, screening tests, differences and applications and their characteristics, four pillars of screening tests, sensitivity, specificity, predictive values and accuracy
CDSCO and Phamacovigilance {Regulatory body in India}NEHA GUPTA
The Central Drugs Standard Control Organization (CDSCO) is India's national regulatory body for pharmaceuticals and medical devices. Operating under the Directorate General of Health Services, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India, the CDSCO is responsible for approving new drugs, conducting clinical trials, setting standards for drugs, controlling the quality of imported drugs, and coordinating the activities of State Drug Control Organizations by providing expert advice.
Pharmacovigilance, on the other hand, is the science and activities related to the detection, assessment, understanding, and prevention of adverse effects or any other drug-related problems. The primary aim of pharmacovigilance is to ensure the safety and efficacy of medicines, thereby protecting public health.
In India, pharmacovigilance activities are monitored by the Pharmacovigilance Programme of India (PvPI), which works closely with CDSCO to collect, analyze, and act upon data regarding adverse drug reactions (ADRs). Together, they play a critical role in ensuring that the benefits of drugs outweigh their risks, maintaining high standards of patient safety, and promoting the rational use of medicines.
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
Local Advanced Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex Sys...Oleg Kshivets
Overall life span (LS) was 1671.7±1721.6 days and cumulative 5YS reached 62.4%, 10 years – 50.4%, 20 years – 44.6%. 94 LCP lived more than 5 years without cancer (LS=2958.6±1723.6 days), 22 – more than 10 years (LS=5571±1841.8 days). 67 LCP died because of LC (LS=471.9±344 days). AT significantly improved 5YS (68% vs. 53.7%) (P=0.028 by log-rank test). Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: N0-N12, T3-4, blood cell circuit, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells-CC and blood cells subpopulations), LC cell dynamics, recalcification time, heparin tolerance, prothrombin index, protein, AT, procedure type (P=0.000-0.031). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and N0-12 (rank=1), thrombocytes/CC (rank=2), segmented neutrophils/CC (3), eosinophils/CC (4), erythrocytes/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), stick neutrophils/CC (8), leucocytes/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (error=0.000; area under ROC curve=1.0).
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Best Ayurvedic medicine for Gas and IndigestionSwastikAyurveda
Here is the updated list of Top Best Ayurvedic medicine for Gas and Indigestion and those are Gas-O-Go Syp for Dyspepsia | Lavizyme Syrup for Acidity | Yumzyme Hepatoprotective Capsules etc
2. Research?
More than a set of skills, it is away of
thinking: examining critically the various
aspects of day to day professional work;
Understanding and formulating guiding
principles that govern a particular
procedures;
Developing and testing new theories for the
enhancement of your practice.
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3. Working Definition
• It is the habit of questioning with
systematic examination of the observed
information to find answers which may
results in more effective professional
services. Kumar R 2005.
4. Definition:
Research is a structured inquiry that
utilizes acceptable scientific
methodology to solve problems and
creates new knowledge that is generally
applicable. Grinnell 1993
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6. Research process “The 8 steps model”
Research design:
functions
FINER
Literature
review
Formulating
a research
question
Methods and
tools of data
collection
Instruments
for data
collection
Research
design
Sampling theory
and designs
Selecting
a sample
Research
protocol
writing
Methods of data
Processing:
computing
and statistics
Data
collection
Editing
Study designs
Variables and
hypotheses: definition
and typology
What
How
Data
processing
Research
report
Coding
Code
book
Field test
of the tools
Validity and
reliability of the
research tool
Principles of
Scientific writing
Contents of
research proposal
Conducting of the study
7. I- Conceiving the Research Question.
The research question is the uncertainty about
something in the population that the
investigator wants to resolve by making
measurements on his study subjects.
No shortage of questions as one leads
to another.
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8. Tamoxifen and Cancer Breast.
Tamoxifen reduces the risk of cancer breast
during 4 years of use by women at high risk of
breast cancer.
Many other questions evolved:
o Does tamoxifen reduce the risk of death due to breast
cancer?
o How long should treatment be continued?
o Might other drugs with the same action are beneficial
without the risk of tamoxifen-induced thromboembolism?
o Does the use of such drug increases the risk for other cancer
(ovarian)?
The difficulty in question lies in finding one
that can be transformed into a feasible and
valid study plan.
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9. Origins of a research question.
For established investigator:
The best research questions usually emerge from
findings and problems faced and observed in prior
studies, and in those of other workers in the field
“Major Players”.
For new and other investigators:
☼
Mastering of the literature.
☼
Being alert to new ideas and techniques.
☼
Keeping the imagination roaming.
☼
Attending seminar, workshops and conferences.
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10. Reviewing of the existing literature
Essential at all steps of your journey
Time consuming
Frustrating
Inappropriate keywords
Searching methods (strategies)
The initial paradox
Provides the background/rationale for your research (clarity and focus)
Refine your research methodology (links/associations/new approaches)
How your work will contribute to the body of knowledge (compared to others’)
Broaden your knowledge base (writing)
How to integrate your work (writing)
11. Paradox of literature review
Lack of idea about the problem to be investigated
The literature search shape your research problem
12. Formulating research problem
Potential research questions may occur to us
on a regular basis, but the process of
formulating them in a meaningful way is not
at all an easy task.
(Meenaghan & Twoomey 1985)
13. Research problem
“Garbage in, garbage out”
Research problem is the input into the study
which influence the quality of your research
(output).
Problem formulation will govern the design,
sampling, instruments used, and analysis
used.
14. Research problems (the 4Ps)
Aspect of study
about
Study of
Study population
People
Individuals,
organizations, groups,
communities
Subject areas
Problem
Issues, situations,
associations, needs,
profiles etc.,
Program
Phenomenon
Content structure,
outcomes, attributes,
etc.,
Cause-effect,
relationships, etc.,
Provide you with
required information
or you collect
information from
them
Information that you
need to collect to
find answers to your
research question
15. Considerations in selecting a research problem (topic)
Interest
Magnitude
Personal interest, motivation
How much is required
Measurement
Availability of indicators and measurement of concepts and variables
Expertise
Know your limitations, ask for help
Relevance
Relevant to your profession, bridging gap, and add new knowledge
Data availability
In case of using secondary sources
Ethical considerations
16. Steps in formulation of a research problem
Indentify
broad field
or subject
area of your
interest
Dissect the
broad area
into subareas
Assess your
objectives
and double
check for
sufficient
interest
Formulate
the
objectives
Select what
is of most
interest to
you
Raise the
research
question
17. Review of
literature at
all steps
Physical
activity
Am I
interested in
doing that
Tools,
sample,
resources
etc.,
Steps in formulation of a research problem
Prevalence
Barriers
Profile
Genders
Sedenatrism
Attitudes
Knowledge
Objective:
assessing the
population
knowledge
about the role
of PA in
cancer
prevention.
Knowledge
of the role of
PA and
cancer
prevention
How much is
the population
knowledge
gap about PA
and cancer
prevention?
18. Characteristics of a good research question “FINER Criteria”.
Feasible
Interesting
Novel
Ethical
Relevant
Adequate number of subjects.
Adequate technical expertise
Affordable in time and money
Manageable in scope
To the investigator
Confirms or refuses previous findings
Extends previous findings
Provides new findings
To scientific knowledge
To clinical and health policy
To future research directions
19. The research question should specifies!
Predictor
Exposure
Smoking
Confounders
Confounders
Occupational hazards
Outcome
Disease
Cancer lung
20. The research question and study plan: problems and solutions
Potential problem
The research question is not FINER
1- Not feasible
too broad
not enough subjects available
methods beyond the skills of the
investigator
too expensive
2- Not interesting, novel, or relevant
3- Uncertain ethical suitability
The study plan is vague
Solutions
Specify a smaller set of variables
Narrow the question.
Expand the inclusion criteria
Eliminate or modify exclusion criteria
Add other sources of subjects
Lengthen the time frame for entry into study
Use strategies to decrease sample size
Collaborate with those who have skills
Consult and review the literature for alternative
methods
Consult and modify the research question
21. The structure of a research project is set out in
its protocol, the written plan of the study.
The functions of the protocol are:
Seeking grant funds.
Helping the investigator to organize his research in a
logical, focused, and efficient way.
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22. Elements of protocol
Research questions
Significance (background)
Design
time frame
epidemiologic approach
Subjects
selection criteria
sampling design
Variables
predictor variables
confounding
outcome variables
Statistical issues
hypotheses
sample size
analytic approach
Purpose
What questions will the study address?
Why are these questions important?
How is the study structured?
Who are the subjects and how will they be
selected?
What measurements will be made?
How large is the study and how will it be
analyzed?
23. Exercise:
Consider the following research questions.
First, write each question in a single
sentence that specifies a predictor, outcome,
and population.
Then discuss whether it meets the FINER
criteria.
Rewrite the question in a form that
overcomes any problems in meeting their
criteria.
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24. Exercise:
A. What is the relationship between depression and
health?
B. Does eating red meat cause cancer?
C. Does lowering serum cholesterol prevent heart
disease?
D. Can a relaxation exercise decrease the anxiety
associated with mammography?
E. Do contraceptive vaginal sponges prevent HIV
infection?
F. Does dietary pattern among school children affect
their health?
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25. Assignment:
Formulate a research questions regarding
health and health-related problems that may
be encountered in:
A. Rural community and the available health facilities.
B. Urban primary health care facility.
C. Primary schools.
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