Biodiversity encompasses the variety of all living organisms, including their ecosystems and habitats, and is vital for sustaining life on Earth. India, being one of the 17 mega-biodiverse countries, hosts a significant proportion of global species, but faces threats from human activities, necessitating conservation efforts. Hotspots of biodiversity are crucial not just for ecological balance but also for economic and social development, highlighting the urgent need for sustainable practices to protect these resources.

1. PLANT BIODIVERSITY
PART 1
BIODIVERSITY
The total variety and variability of all living things, including their
genetic constituents, interrelationships and habitats; and the
ecosystems and landscapes of which they are part.
 Biodiversity describes the richness and variety of life on
earth. It is the most complex and important feature of our
planet. Without biodiversity, life would not sustain.
 The term biodiversity was coined in 1985. It refers to
variabilities among plants, animals and microorganism
species.
 biodiversity is the assemblage of different life forms
 Biodiversity holds ecological and economic significance.
 It provides us with nourishment, housing, fuel, clothing and
several other resources. It also extracts monetary benefits
through tourism. Therefore, it is very important to have a
good knowledge of biodiversity for a sustainable
livelihood.
 The term “biodiversity” is a contraction of “biological diversity”
or “biotic diversity”. These terms all refer to the idea of living
variation, from genes and traits, to species, and to ecosystems.
The popular contraction “biodiversity” came about in the mid-
1980s,
 Thus, biodiversity is sum of all the genes, varieties,
species, populations in different ecosystems and their
relative abundance.
NATIONAL STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY
India, 2.4 percent of the earth’s land area,
accounts for 7-8 percent of the world’s recorded species and four
of the 34 global biodiversity hotspots are in India.
As one of the 17 mega-biodiverse countries in the world, India
along with its 1.3 billion people is home to 96,000 species of

2. animals, 47,000 species of plants and nearly half the world’s
aquatic plants .
With the aim of protecting and nurturing this rich biodiversity, this
mission includes -
 The is a response to our national commitment to a clean
environment, mandated in the Constitution in Articles 48 A
and 51 A (g), strengthened by judicial interpretation of
Article 21.
 It is recognized that maintaining a healthy environment is
not the state's responsibility alone, but also that of every
citizen.
 The dominant theme of this policy is that conservation of
environmental resources is necessary to secure livelihoods
and well-being of all, to ensure that people dependent on
particular resources obtain better livelihoods from the fact
of conservation, than from degradation of the resource.
Objectives of the National Environment Policy
 Conservationof Critical EnvironmentalResources:
To protect and conserve critical ecologicalsystems and
resources, and invaluablenaturaland man-made heritage,
which are essential for lifesupport, livelihoods,economic
growth, and a broad conceptionof human well-being.
 To protect and conserve critical ecological systems and resources
 To ensure judicious use of environmental resources to meet the
needs and aspirations of the present and future generations
 To integrate environmental concerns into policies, plans,
programmes, and projects for economic and social development.
 To ensure efficient use of environmental resources in the sense of
reduction in their use per unit of economic output, to minimize
adverse environmental impacts.
 To expand knowledge in ecosystem functioning which provide
updation on restoration efforts.

3. Global biodiversity
We analyze global terrestrial, freshwater, and marine biodiversity
scenarios using a range of measures including extinctions, changes in
species abundance, habitat loss, and distribution shifts, as well as
comparing model projections to observations.
Scenarios consistently indicate that biodiversity will continue to decline
over the 21st century.
Increasing plant diversity led to increasing chemical weathering of rocks and
therefore an increasing flux of carbon from the atmosphere to rocks, and
nutrients from the continents to the oceans.
The CO2 concentration dependence of photosynthetic carbon indicates that
the diversification of land plants led to decreasing CO2 levels, while the
diversification of marine animals derived from increasing nutrient availability.
As a consequence, the paleontological record of biodiversity provides an
indirect estimate of the fluctuations of ancient CO2 levels.
Freshwaterbiodiversity: importance, threats, status and
conservation challenges -
Freshwater biodiversityis the over-ridingconservation priorityduringthe
International Decade for Action - 'Water for Life' - 2005 to 2015.
freshwater biodiversityconstitute a valuable natural resource, in economic,
cultural, aesthetic, scientific andeducational terms.
Yet this precious heritage is in crisis.Fresh waters are experiencingdeclines in
biodiversityfar greater than those in the most affectedterrestrial ecosystems,
In many parts of the world, freshwater ecosystems are alreadydegraded from a
range of human activities,includingwater extraction, pollution and physical
alteration.
several case studies were cited to illustrate the status of freshwater diversity.
Four air pollutants (sulfur, nitrogen, ozone, and mercury) and eight ecosystem
types rangingfrom estuaries to alpine tundra are seen. None of them are free of
the impacts of air pollution, and most are affected by multiple pollutants.
Changes in species composition caused by terrestrial or aquatic acidification or
eutrophication can propagate throughout the food webs to affect many
organisms beyond those that are directlysensitive to the pollution.

4. Terrestrial biodiversity –
Human activities are fundamentallyalteringbiodiversity.
Human activities,especiallyconversion anddegradation of habitats, are causing
global biodiversitydeclines.
Climate change is reshapingglobal biodiversityas species respond to changing
temperatures.
Regions and localities may lose many species to extinction under rapid climate
change and may gain other species that colonize from nearby warmer
environments. there will be more net declines than net increases in plant
community richness.
Butterfly populations are naturallypatchy and undergo extinctions and
recolonizations.
Experimental studies show that O3 can adverselyaffect the growth and flowering
of plants and alter species composition and richness,
CO2 is the substrate for photosynthesis and thus can accelerate tree growth,
whereas O3 is a highlyreactive oxygen species and interferes with basic
physiological functions.
CO2 generallyleads to an increase in the C/N ratio, due to a decline in foliar
nitrogen and concomitant increases in carbohydrates and phenolics.
CO2-andO3-mediated changes in plant chemistry influence host selection,
individual performance (development, growth, reproduction), and population
densities of herbivores (primarilyphytophagous insects) and soil invertebrates.
Micro(nano)plastics,new emergingcontaminants,are ubiquitouslyfound in the
environmentdue to continuous release andaccumulation. Widespread
micro(nano)plastics can increase their exposure to organisms, pose threats to the
ecological environmentand human health, and potentiallyresult in global
biodiversitychanges
Due to the widespreadpresence, environmental persistence, andvarious
interactions with continental biota, microplastic pollution might representan
emergingglobal change threat to terrestrial ecosystems.
Currentlevels of endangerment and historicaltrends of species and habitats are the
main criteria used to direct conservation efforts globally.

5. HOTSPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY
BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS IN INDIA
1. Himalaya: Includes the entire Indian Himalayan region (and that
falling in Pakistan, Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, China and Myanmar)
o The Himalaya Hotspot is home to the world's highest mountains,
including Mt. Everest.
o five plant families are endemic to the region, the Tetracentraceae,
Hamamelidaceae, Circaesteraceae, Butomaceae and Stachyuraceae.
The largest family of flowering plants in the hotspot is the Orchidacea,
with 750 species,
o The hotspot is home to important populations of numerous large birds
and mammals, including vultures, tigers, elephants, rhinos and wild
water buffalo.
o THREATS - include mining, the construction of roads and large dams,
and pollution due to the use of agrochemicals., habitat loss and
degradation, Overgrazing by domestic livestock.
2. Indo-Burma:Includes entire North-eastern India, except Assam and
Andaman group of Islands (and Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos,
Cambodia and southern China)

6. o Six large mammal species have been discovered in the last 12 years: the
large-antlered muntjac, the Annamite muntjac, the grey-shanked douc,
the Annamite striped rabbit, the leaf deer, and the saola.
o endemism in freshwater turtle species, most of which are threatened
with extinction, due to over-harvesting and extensive habitat loss.
o bird species, including the threatened white-eared night-heron, the
grey-crowned crocias, and the orange-necked partridge.
o PLANTS- hotspot reveals about 13,500 vascular plant species, of which
about 7,000 (52%) are endemic. wide array of orchid and ginger species
and many tropical hardwood trees, including commercially valuable
dipterocarp species and teak (Tectona grandis).
o THREATS - resource exploitation and habitat loss.
The combination of rapid population growth and economic development
has also caused overexploitation of natural resources to reach critical
levels in the hotspot.
Freshwater floodplain swamps and wetlands are destroyed by draining for
wet rice cultivation, particularly in Thailand, Myanmar and Vietnam.
Mangroves have been converted to shrimp aquacultural ponds.
overfishing and the increasing use of destructive fishing techniques is a
significant problem in both coastal and offshore marine ecosystems.
3. Sundalands:Includes Nicobar group of Islands (and Indonesia,
Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, Philippines)
Populations of the orangutan, found only in this hotspot, are in dramatic
decline.
Forests are being cleared for commercial uses. Rubber, oil palm, and pulp
production are three of the most detrimental forces facing biodiversity in
the Sundaland Hotspot.
PLANTS - Sundaland is one of the biologically richest hotspots on Earth,
holding about 25,000 species of vascular plants, 15,000 (60%). Borneo
also has more than 2,000 species of orchids.
Notable plants in the hotspot include members of the genus Rafflesia,
represented by 16 species with very large flowers.
THREATS - forest destruction, Logging has been extensive in some
protected areas.
fires have become a major threat to the forests of Sundaland. fires have
become a major threat to the forests of Sundaland.

7. wildlife trade - Orang-utan numbers were severely reduced in the past
because of the pet trade. Today, tigers and rhinoceroses are the most
visible targets of hunting for the Chinese medicine market, for skins, body
parts, and horns.
4. Western Ghats and Sri Lanka:Includes entire Western Ghats
(and Sri Lanka)
Western Ghats, known locally as the Sahyadri Hills, are formed by the
Malabar Plains and the chain of mountains running parallel to India's
western coast, Dozens of rivers originate in these mountains and are
important sources of drinking water, irrigation, and power.
Sri Lanka is a continental island separated from southern India by the 20-
meter-deep Palk Strait
There are a minimum of 6,000 vascular plant species in the Western
Ghats. Plant diversity and endemism in Sri Lanka are quite high,
THREATS - Extremely high population pressure in both countries of this
hotspot has seriously stressed the region's biodiversity. There are more
than one billion people in India and almost 20 million in Sri Lanka.
The forests of the Western Ghats have been selectively logged and highly
fragmented throughout their entire range. Forests have been converted
to agricultural land for monoculture plantations of tea, coffee, rubber, oil
palm, teak, eucalyptus, and wattle, and are also cleared for building
reservoirs, roads, and railways.
Uncontrolled tourism and forest fires are additional concerns.
 It hasbeen estimated that 50,000 endemic plantswhich
comprise 20% of globalplant life, probablyoccur in only 18 ‘hot
spots’ in the world.
 Countries which have a relatively large proportionof these hot
spots of diversity are referred to as ‘megadiversity nations'.
Why biodiversity hotspots are important?
 Every minute organism and plant or a big mammal or tree plays
an important role in the ecosystem. These biodiversity hotspots
are the home to thousands of such endemic organisms, plants,
and vegetation.

8.  Thus, have a huge impact on the ecosystem and biosphere. All
these hotspots of the world are the life support system for the
earth’s environment, ecosystem, and human beings.
 These hotspots are helpful in many ways like protecting natural
resources like pure water, soil, maintenance of the ecosystem,
controlling pollution and recycling the nutrients of the ecosystem.
 Biodiversity hotspots are also a good source of many of the
medicinal resources, pharmaceutical drugs, and wood products.
Hotspots are also a great place for research and education-
related activities for the betterment of the human race.
ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA
The word ‘endemism’ originates from the Greek endémos, where en stands
for ‘in’ and démos for ‘people’, thus meaning people belonging in a certain
area or region.
Endemism may have two quite different kinds of origin:
(1) the most pure form of endemism would be where a species evolve
uniquely at a location and remains exclusive to that location;
(2) endemism can also occur as a result of habitat fragmentation or
destruction and a subsequent extinction from all localities except one.
Distinction is difficult because, in most cases, no fossils remained. There is
quite a number of species that, for a long time, have been known only from
the type locality (local endemics). Others were found to be restricted to a
certain region (regional endemics).
Endemic - A taxon, or group of taxa, restricted to a proscribed area and
found nowhere else on Earth.
 Several plant and animal species in the country are now found in only
one or a few Protected Areas. Among the important endangered
animals are charismatic species such as the tiger, the elephant, the
rhino, etc. The less well-known major mammals restricted to a single
area include the Indian wild ass, the Hangul or Kashmir stag.
 Many plant species are now increasingly threatened due to changes in
their habitats induced by human activity. Apart from major trees,
shrubs and climbers that are extremely habitat specific and thus
endangered, there are thousands of small herbs which are greatly
threatened by habitat loss.
 Many plants are threatened due to overharvesting as ingredients in
medicinal products.

9. To protect endangered species India has created the Wildlife Protection
Act. This includes lists of plants and animals categorised according to the
threat on their survival.
EXTINCTION
 Extinction is the dying out of a species. Extinction plays an
+important role in the evolution of life because it opens up
opportunities for new species to emerge.
 When a species disappears, biologists say that the species has
become extinct. By making room for new
species, extinction helps drive the evolution of life.
 Over long periods of time, the number of species becoming
extinct can remain fairly constant, meaning that an average
number of species go extinct each year, century, or millennium.
However, during the history of life on Earth, there have been
periods of mass extinction, when large percentages of the
planet’s species became extinct in a relatively short amount of
time. These extinctions have had widely different causes.
 The first mass extinction is called the Ordovician-Silurian
Extinction. It occurred about 440 million years ago In this
extinction event, many small organisms of the sea became
extinct.
 The next mass extinction is called Devonian extinction,
occurring 365 million years ago during the Devonian period.
This extinction also saw the end of numerous sea
organisms.
 The largest extinction took place around 250 million years
ago. Known as the Permian-Triassic extinction, or the Great
Dying, this event saw the end of more than 90 percent of the
Earth’s species.
 About 210 million years ago, between the Triassic
and Jurassic periods, came another mass extinction. By
eliminating many large animals, this extinction event cleared
the way for dinosaurs to flourish.
 Finally, about 65.5 million years ago, at the end of
the Cretaceous period came the fifth mass extinction. This is
the famous extinction event that brought the age of the
dinosaurs to an end.
 Scientists refer to the current time as
the Anthropocene period, meaning the period of humanity.
They warn that, because of human activities such as

10. pollution, overfishing, and the cutting down of forests, the
Earth might be on the verge of—or already in—a sixth mass
extinction.
SIGNIFICANCE OF BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity is the amount of variety of life on Earth. It is the number of
different species of plants, animals, and microorganisms. It includes
organisms from Earth’s vastly different ecosystems, including deserts,
rainforests, coral reefs, grasslands, tundra, and polar ice caps.
Our biodiversity is very important to the well-being of our planet. Most
cultures, at least at some time, have recognized the importance of
conserving natural resources. Many still do, but many do not.
 Increase ecosystem productivity; each species in an ecosystem
has a specific niche—a role to play.
 Support a larger number of plant species and, therefore, a greater
variety of crops.
 Protect freshwater resources.
 Promote soils formation and protection.
 Provide for nutrient storage and recycling.
 Aid in breaking down pollutants.
 Contribute to climate stability.
 Speed recovery from natural disasters.
 Provide more food resources.
 Provide more medicinal resources and pharmaceutical drugs.
 Offer environments for recreation and tourism.
 The cost of replacing these (if possible) would be extremely
expensive. It therefore makes economic and development sense
to move towards sustainability. Keeping biodiverse
ecosystems intact helps humans stay healthy.
o Biodiversity is an essential part of the solution to climate
change.
Biodiversity boosts ecosystem productivity where each species, no
matter how small, all have an important role to play.
oSpecies depend on each other
While there might be survival of the fittest within a given species, each
species depends on the services provided by other species to ensure

11. survival. It is a type of cooperation based on mutual survival and is
often what a balanced ecosystem refers to.
Soil,bacteria, plants;theNitrogenCycle
Bees:crucialagriculturalworkers
o Bees provide enormous benefits for humankind as another example.
As reported by CNN (May 5, 2000), One third of all our food—fruits
and vegetables—would not exist without pollinators visiting flowers.
But honeybees, the primary species that fertilizes food-producing
plants, have suffered dramatic declines in recent years, mostly from
afflictions introduced by humans.
o Largecarnivores essentialforhealthyecosystems
Three quarters of the world’s big carnivores are in decline. these large
animals — such as lions, leopards, wolves and bears — are in decline,
due to declining habitats and persecution by humans..
CAUSES OF BIODIVERSITY DEPLETION
(1) Destruction of Habitat, (2) Hunting, (3) Exploitation of
Selected Species, (4) Habitat Fragmentation, (5) Collection for
Zoo and Research, (6) Introduction of Exotic Species, (7)
Pollution, (8) Control of Pests and Predators, (9) Natural
Calamities, and (10) Other Factors.
Cause #1 Destruction of Habitat:
The natural habitat may be destroyed by man for his settlement,
agriculture, mining, industries,highway construction, dam building etc.
Several rare butterfly species are facing extinction due to habitat
destruction in the Western Ghats.
Cause #2 Hunting:
Wild animals are hunted for the commercial utilization of their products
such as hides and skin, tusk, fur, meat, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics,
perfumes and decoration purposes. Hunting for sport is also a factor for loss
of animal biodiversity.
Cause #3 Exploitation of Selected Species:
Exploitation of medicinally important plants has resulted in their
disappearance from many of their natural habitat. The pitcher plants,

12. Nepenthes khasiana, Drosera sp., Gnetum sp., Psilotum sp. Isoetes sp. are
ruthlessly sought and collected for teaching and laboratory work.
Cause #4 Habitat Fragmentation:
Habitat fragmentation may be defined as an “unnatural detaching or
separation of expansive tracts of habitats into spatially segregated
fragments” that are too limited to maintain their different species for an
infinite future.
Cause #5 Collection for Zoo and Research:
Animals and plants are collected throughout the world for zoos and
biological laboratories for study and research in science and medicine. For
example, primates such as monkeys and chimpanzees are sacrificed for
research as they are similar to humans in appearance.
Cause #6 Introduction of Exotic Species:
Any species which is not a natural inhabitant of the locality but is
deliberately or accidentally introduced into the system may be designated as
an exotic species. Native species are subjected to competition for food and
space due to the introduction of exotic species.
Cause #7 Pollution:
Pollution alters the natural habitat. Water pollution especially injurious to
the biotic components of estuary and coastal ecosystems.Toxic wastes
entering the water bodies disturb the food chain and so the aquatic
ecosystems.Insecticides, pesticides, sulphur and nitrogen oxides, acid rain,
affects plants and animal species.
Cause #8 Control of Pests and Predators:
Predator and pest control measures,generally kill predators that are a
component of balanced ecosystem and may also indiscriminately kill non-
target species.
Cause #9 Natural Calamities:
Natural calamities,such as floods, draught, forest fires, earth-quakes,
volcanic eruptions, epidemics etc. sometimes take a heavy toll of plant and
animal life.
Cause #10 Other Factors:
Other Ecological Factors that may also Contribute to the
Extinction of Plant and Animal Diversity are as follows:
(a) Distribution range—The smallerthe range of distribution, the greater
the threat of extinction,
(b) Degree of specialization— The more specialized an organism is, the
more vulnerable it is to extinction,

13. (c) Position of the organism in the food chain—The higher the organism in
food chain, the more susceptible it becomes,
(d) Reproductive rate—Large organisms tend to produce feweroff springs at
widely intervals.
LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity
 The term Biodiversitywas first coined by Walter G. Rosen.
 Biodiversityis a combination of two words, Bio (Life) and Diversity (Variety),
thus Biodiversitymeans a variety of Plants,micro-organismandanimal
communities in an ecosystem.
Levels of Biodiversity
Based on the Genetic, Species and Ecosystem variation of Biodiversity, it can be classified into
following 3 types.
1.Genetic Diversity
2.Species Diversity
3.Ecosystem Diversity
Genetic Diversity
 Genetic Biodiversity refers to the variation of genes within the
species of plants and animals and, the diversity among the genes
leads to differentiation of species and which in turn determines
the level of Biodiversity.
 More genetic diversity helps in the better adaptability of the
individuals to the environmental conditions and at the same time,
lesser genetic diversity leads to uniformity of species and thus
greater susceptibility to the environmental hazards or other
related impacts.
 Example - People living in hilly areas develop genes in
accordance with the climatic condition in long run, as they have
wider chest to suck more air from the environment where density
of gases is quite low, thus they have diversity in terms of genes
from the individuals of same species i.e. Homo Sapiens.

14.  Distinct population of the same species i.e. high variety in the
attributes like shape and size of Butterflies, Rhinoceros etc. are
due to the possibility of variation among the genes and that is
positive for the entire ecosystem too, while we can see low
genetic variation among the Cheetah which can be considered as
a major reason for them becoming vulnerable.
Species Diversity
 Species diversity refers to a variety of species in terms of plant,
animal and microorganism of a particular ecosystem and species
richness (no. of species available in a region) are mostly used to
gauge the species diversity.
 Species diversity can also be expressed in more precise terms with
the help of Taxonomic Diversity which shows the relationship
among the species. For example, if at a place x, there are 4 species
of reptiles and 2 species of birds while in other place y, there are 6
species of reptiles but no species of birds. Then, the Place x is
more taxonomically diverse compared to a place y.
 Sometimes Species diversity is used as a synonym to the
Biodiversity and the size of the species diversity is instrumental in
making food chain longer / shorter.
 The equatorial rainforest has richest species biodiversity and they
are known as the hotspots of the Biodiversity.
Ecosystem Diversity
 As in ecosystem, there are a variety of habitats and Niches (a role
and position of species in the environment) for the biological
processes and operations, thus the Biodiversity is also considered
at the ecosystem level.
 The examples of ecosystem based on the habitat are Grassland,
Coral, Desert, Mangrove, Wetland, Tropical Rain Forest etc.
 The Environmental conditions like land, soil, water, climate etc.
determine the nature and variation of habitats for different
Biological communities and also the change in the Climatic
conditions is accompanied by the change in the vegetation. Over
the period of time, the species adapt to a particular kind of
environment.
IUCN CATEGORIES OF THREAT

15. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species is the world's mostcomprehensive
inventory of the global conservation status of plant and animal species. It uses
a set of quantitative criteria to evaluate the extinction risk of thousands of
species. These criteria are relevant to most speciesand all regions of the
world. With its strong scientific base, the IUCN Red List is recognised as the
most authoritative guide to the status of biologicaldiversity.
What does each category mean ?
In descending order of threat, the IUCN Red List threat categories are
as follows:
 Extinct (EX) – No known individuals remaining.
 Extinct in the wild (EW) – Known only to survive in captivity, or as a
naturalized population outside its historic range.
 Critically endangered (CR) – Extremely high risk of extinction in the wild.
 Endangered (EN) – High risk of extinction in the wild.
 Vulnerable (VU) – High risk of endangerment in the wild.
 Near threatened (NT) – Likely to become endangered soon.
 Least concern (LC) – Lowest risk. Does not qualify for a more at-risk
category. Widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category.
 Data deficient (DD) – Not enough data to assess its risk of extinction.
 Not evaluated (NE) – Has not yet been evaluated against the criteria
The IUCN Red List Categories define the extinction risk of species
assessed. Nine categories extend from NE (Not Evaluated) to EX
(Extinct).
What does IUCN mean by "threatened" ?
Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered (EN) and Vulnerable (VU)
species are considered to be threatened with global extinction.
The IUCN Red List assesses the conservation status of species at a global level, drawing on
expert knowledge from around the world.
The Red List Index

16. The IUCN Red List Index (RLI)provides a clearerview of realtrends within
differenttaxonomic groups,and for biodiversityas a whole.
The RLI is available forgroups in which all species have been assessedat least
twice. Currently, the Index is available for five groups : birds,mammals,
amphibians,coralsand cycads.
The RLI clearly demonstrates that the status of these five major groups
continues to decline.
Objectives of IUCN
The International Union for Conservation of Nature works to
achieve the following goals:
1. To provide scientific data on the status of species and
subspecies at a global level.
2. To address the factors of concern and spread awareness
regarding the species and biodiversity extinction.
3. To plan a layout for the conservation of biodiversity.
RED DATA BOOK -
 The ‘Red Data Books’published by the International Union for
Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources(IUCN) contain lists of.
Endemic plant and animal species presentin the biodiversity hotspots.
 Red data book is the document established by IUCN for documenting the
rare and endangered speciesof plants, animals, fungi and also a few local
species that exist within a state or country.
 The red data book is maintained by the International Union for
Conservation of Nature. This organization was founded in 1948 and works
in the field of conservation of nature and sustainable use of natural
resources.
 The red list contains only the names of the endangered species,however,
the Red Data Book contains the information about the speciesthat are on
the verge of extinction.
The critically endangered speciesof India are:

17.  Kashmir Stag
 River Dolphins
 Kondana rat
 Malabar Civet
Advantages of the Red Data Book
 It helps in identifying all animals, birds and other species about
their conservation status.
 It is used to evaluate the population of a particular species.
 The data available in this book can be used to evaluate the taxa
at the global level.
 With the help of this book, we can estimate the risk of taxa
becoming globally extinct.
 Provides a framework or guidelines for implementing protective
measures for endangered species.
Disadvantages of the Red Data Book
 The information available in the Red Data Book is incomplete.
Many species, both extinct and extant are not updated in this
book.
 The source of the book’s data has been speculated and has been
mired in controversy.
 This book maintains the complete record of all animals, plants,
other species but it has no information about the microbes.
LOCAL PLANT DIVERSITY AND ITS SOCIO ECONOMIC
IMPORTANCE-
Plants of commercial importance
Species common introdescription commercial app. Plnt prt comm. Use desp.
Nelumbo
nucifera
Water
Lily,
Lotus,
Sacred
Lotus,
East
Indian
Lotus
कमल
Kamal
The Indian Lotus, also known
as the Sacred Lotus, is a
culturally significant plant in
many Asian cultures in general
and Indian culture in particular.
It is a plant native to the Indian
subcontinent, but now is found
as an ornamental plant
worldwide. The Lotus is
considered a symbol of
devotion and purity. It is the
seat of Goddess Lakshmi,
Goddess Saraswati, Lord
Vishnu and Lord Brahma. The
flowers of Lotus have several
medicinal properties as per
Human
consumption
Ornamental
use
Religious
use
Entire
plant
Root
Rhizomes
Stem
Leaves
Flower
Fruit
Seeds
Almost all parts of the plant
have medicinal and
culinary uses as previously
described. The plant is also
a prized ornamental plant,
especially in artificial
ponds.

18. Ayurveda. Lotus is also the
national flower of India.
Cocos
nucifera
Coconut
नारियल
Naariyal
Human
consumption
Animal
consumption
Agricultural
use
Cosmetic
use
Ornamental
use
Religious
use
Industrial
use
Wood
Root
Stem
Bark
Leaves
Fruit
. Bark and coir (fruit hair)
used for making brooms,
ropes, mattresses, brushes
and even as potting
compost. Fruit is used in
several food preparations,
most notably chutneys and
coconut sweets. Used for
making hair oils and edible
oils.
The dried calyx of the
coconut is used as fuel in
wood fired stoves.
The fresh husk of a brown
coconut is also used as a
dish sponge or as a body
sponge.Coconut roots are
used as a dye and a
mouthwash.Coconut trunks
are used for building small
bridges; t
Jasminum
sambac
Jasmine
बेला Bela,
मोतिया
Motiya,
मोगिा
Mogra
Jasminum sambac is a
species of jasmine native to
southwestern and southern
Asia, in the Philippines, India,
Myanmar and Sri Lanka. It is
grown mainly as an
ornamental plant due to its
fragrant and beautiful flowers.
Human
consumption
Ornamental
use
Flavouring agent: to flavour
tea in China, Making
Perfumes,for making
garlands and bouquets and
for religious offerings.
Acacia
concinna
Soap pod तिकाकाई Shikakai
Ayurveda
Folk
Medicine
Infectious
diseases
Organ-
specific
disorders
Skin diseases
Malaria
Dandruff control
Acacia nilotica
Arabic Gum, Black
Piquant, Egyptian thorn,
Prickly acacia
बबूल Babool,कीकि
Kikar
Ayurveda
Folk
Medicine
Infectious
diseases
anthelmintic
astringent
aphrodisiac
antipyretic
Antihypertensive
Antispasmodic
Aloe vera Aloe vera, Medicinal aloe, Burn plant
Gheekumari
घीक
ु मािी
Ayurveda
Folk
Medicine
Plants of religious significance
Cedrus
deodara
Deodar
Cedar देओदाि
These are evergreen conifers
known for their ornamental
value and broadly used as
timber. their wood has aromatic
smell with red or red-tinged
colour and is decay-resistant
and insect-repellent.
Among Hindus it is worshipped as a divine tree,
particularly in Kashmir and Punjab villages, as the
name deodar suggests. The first half of the word
deva means the words divine, deity, deus, and
Zeus and the second part connotes durum, druid,
tree, and true.

19. Several Hindu legends refer to this tree. In Valmiki
Ramayan
Ocimum
tenuiflorum
Holy
Basil,
Indian
Basil
िुलसी
Tulsi
Ocimum tenuiflorum or Tulsi is
one of the most sacred plants in
Hinduism. The plant has several
medicinal properties. It is found
throughout India.
Tulsi, which is Sanskrit for "the incomparable one",
is worshiped throughout India, most often regarded
as a consort of Vishnu in the form of Mahalakshmi.
There are two types of Tulsi worshiped in
Hinduism—"Rama Tulsi" has light green leaves
and is larger in size; "Krishna Tulsi" has dark green
leaves and is important for the worship of Vishnu.
Many Hindus have tulsi plants growing in front of or
near their home, often in special Tulsi pots. It is
also frequently grown next to Vishnu temples,
especially in Varanasi.
BIODIVERSITY CONCEPTS-
Our understanding of ecosystems and how best to manage them is
summarized in the following concepts:
 Levelsofbiologicalorganization: Plants and animals and
their supporting natural systems are sustained by dynamic
ecological patterns and processes at all levels of biological
organization (genes, species, populations, communities,
ecosystems, landscapes and regions). These range from very
small scale (processes shaping the life-cycle of leaves) to very
large scale (climatic processes) and all are interdependent.
 Nativespecies: Native plants, animals, fungi and microbes,
evolving together over thousands of years, are the foundation of
the natural systems that sustain biological diversity. Individual
native species can be displaced not only by human activity but
also by the invasion of non-native species such as the American
bullfrogs in Vancouver Island lakes.
 Keystonespecies: Some species like salmon and sea otters have
effects on their biological communities disproportionate to their
abundance and biomass. Keystone ecosystems (such as riparian
areas) and keystone processes (such as wildfire and pollination by
insects) are equally vital.
 Populationviabilitythresholds: Impacts such as loss of habitat
can reduce the survival viability of a population or species.

20.  Ecologicalresilience: Ecosystems can absorb disturbance or
stress and remain within their natural variability. However, too
much disturbance can lead to ecosystem collapse.
 Disturbances: Natural events such as wildfire or human-
induced events such as urban development change the existing
condition of an ecosystem, and may put its survival at risk.
 Naturalrangeofvariability: The naturally occurring variation
over time of the composition and structure found in an ecosystem
represents the range of conditions occurring over hundreds of
years prior to industrial-scale society.
 Connectivity/fragmentation: The degree to which ecosystems
are linked internally as well as to one another to form an
integrated network is essential to support the movement and
adaptation of species; breaks in these links through human
activity can have adverse impacts on biodiversity.
PRINCIPLES OF CONSERVATION
A set of five guiding principles for biodiversity conservation that are
broadly applicable to any forested area:
(1) the maintenance of connectivity;
(2) the maintenance of landscape heterogeneity;
(3) the maintenance of stand structural complexity; and
(4) the maintenance of aquatic ecosystem integrity;
(5) the use of natural disturbance regimes to guide human disturbance
regimes.
ECOLOGICALPRINCIPLES
The following ecological principles describe the assumptions needed to
plan actions for conserving biodiversity:
 Protection of species and species subdivisions will support
biodiversity.
 Maintaining habitat is fundamental to conserving species.
 Large areas usually contain more species than smaller areas with
similar habitat.

21.  "All things are connected" but the nature and strength of the
connection varies.
 Disturbances shape the characteristics of populations,
communities and ecosystems.
 Climate change will increasingly influence all types of ecosystems
APPLYINGECOLOGICALCONCEPTSANDPRINCIPLESINBIODIVERSITY
CONSERVATION
These ecological concepts and principles are closely inter-related, and
they must be applied in harmony with one another. The following
applications are based on Coarse- and Fine-filter considerations:
 Use both filters: Use a Coarse-filter to create a network of
representative protected areas and manage surrounding areas in
a way that most closely emulates natural processes. Use a Fine-
filter to fill in the gaps by conserving ecosystems, features and
species not adequately protected through the coarse filter
approach.
 Represent all native ecosystem types in a system of protected
areas.
 Retain large contiguous or connected areas that sustain natural
ecological processes.
 Maintain or emulate natural ecological processes.
 Manage for adaptability in response to environmental change.
 Maintain viable populations of all native species in natural
patterns of abundance and distribution.
 Preserve rare landscape elements, critical habitats and features,
and associated species.
 Minimize the introduction and spread of invasive alien species.
InConclusionThe ecological concepts and principles, and their
application to conserve biodiversity described in this document are
intended to provide a science-based starting point for the action on
biodiversity conservation.
BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION STRATEGIES

22. What is meant by biodiversity conservation?
Biodiversity conservation means protection, conservation and management of
the biodiversity in order to obtain sustainable benefits for future generations.
OR
Biodiversity conservation is the protection and management of
biodiversity to obtain resources for sustainable development.
Biodiversityconservation hasthreemainobjectives:
 To preserve the diversity of species.
 Sustainable utilization of species and ecosystem.
 To maintain life-supporting systems and essential ecological
processes.
How can we conserve biodiversity?
Biodiversity can be conserved by:
 Preventing the cutting of trees.
 Putting a ban on hunting of animals.
 Efficient utilisation of natural resources.
 Protected areas should be developed for animals where no human
activities are allowed.

23. Why is it important to conserve biodiversity?
Biodiversity conservation is important because biodiversity provides certain
services and resources that are essential for life on earth. Biodiversity also
provides social benefits.
StrategiesforBiodiversityConservation
Following are the important strategies for biodiversity conservation:
1. All the varieties of food, timber plants, livestock, microbes and
agricultural animals should be conserved.
2. All the economically important organisms should be identified and
conserved.
3. Unique ecosystems should be preserved first.
4. The resources should be utilized efficiently.
5. Poaching and hunting of wild animals should be prevented.
6. The reserves and protected areas should be developed carefully.
7. The levels of pollutants should be reduced in the environment.
8. Deforestation should be strictly prohibited.
9. Environmental laws should be followed strictly.
10. The useful and endangered species of plants and animals
should be conserved in their nature as well as artificial habitats.
11. Public awareness should be created regarding biodiversity
conservation and its importance.
MAJOR APPROACHES TO MANAGEMENT
At the regional scale, management should ensure the
establishment of large ecological reserves. At the landscape
scale, off-reserve conservation measures should include:
(1) protected areas within production forests;
(2) buffers for aquatic ecosystems;

24. (3) appropriately designed and located road networks;
(4) the careful spatial and temporal arrangement of harvest
units; and
(5) appropriate fire management practices.
At the stand level, off-reserve conservation measures should
include:
(1) the retention of key elements of stand structural complexity
(e.g., large living and dead trees with hollows, understorey
thickets, and large fallen logs);
(2) long rotation times (coupled with structural retention at
harvest);
(3) silvicultural systems alternative to traditional high impact
ones (e.g., clearcutting in some forest types); and (4)
appropriate fire management practices and practices for the
management of other kinds of disturbances.
Wildlife Sanctuaries of India & National Parks
All about Protected Area Networks-National Parks, Wildlife
sanctuaries, Biosphere reserves and more –
What is meant by a Protected Area (PA)?
Protected areas are regions or zones of land or sea which are given
certain levels of protection for conservation of biodiversity and socio-
environmental values. In these areas, human intervention and
exploitation of resources is limited.
Protected Areas are the principal mechanism of conservation of
biodiversity on Earth and serves as the most important units for in-
situ biodiversity conservation.
There are several kinds of protected areas, which vary by level of
protection. Examples include national parks, wildlife sanctuaries,
marine protected areas, community reserves etc.
Wildlife Sanctuaries -
 Wildlife Sanctuaries & National Parks are high-security natural areas
created to conserve and protect animals/other conservation-reliant
species from poachers.
 The land of India is bestowed with bountiful natural beauty that
shelters diverse wildlife.
 From lush forests and salt deserts to rugged mountains and vast
marine stretches, India's wildlife sanctuaries are home to unique
species of flora and fauna.

25.  Some of the top sanctuaries in the country that are ideal for a
wildlife game drive are listed below :-
Mount Abu Wildlife Sanctuary, Rajasthan
Boasting rich biodiversity, this sanctuary is spread over the
hills of Mount Abu. It was minted a wildlife sanctuary in 1960
and is a significant eco-tourism spot today.
Gajner Wildlife Sanctuary, Rajasthan
Nestled atop a small hill in Bikaner, Gajner Wildlife Sanctuary
is a haven for wildlife enthusiasts, who can spot fauna like
nilgai, chinkara, blackbuck, wild boar, flocks of imperial sand
grouse and many other species of migratory birds.
Chapramari Wildlife Sanctuary, West Bengal
Located against the backdrop of Kanchanjungha, the third-
highest peak in the world, this sanctuary is a haven of
tranquillity. It shelters wildlife like leopards, elephants, gaur,
etc.
Mahananda Wildlife Sanctuary, West Bengal
Lying in the foothills of the Himalayas, this sanctuary is
sprawled along the banks of the Mahananda river. It is home to
wildlife like the one-horned rhinoceros, elephants, tigers,
sambar, leopards, bison, etc.
Pushpagiri Wildlife Sanctuary, Karnataka
Home to several endangered species of animals and birds,
Pushpagiri is among the 21 wildlife sanctuaries in Karnataka. It
offers a thrilling wildlife adventure to visitors.
Ralamandal Wildlife Sanctuary, Madhya Pradesh
Cut by the pristine Narmada river, Ralamandal is among the
oldest wildlife sanctuaries of the state. It is home to wildlife like
tigers, deer, wild hare, etc.
Yangoupokpi Wildlife Sanctuary, Manipur
Set up in 1989, this sanctuary spans an area of 185 sq km and
is among the nine identified Important Bird Areas (IBAs) in the
state. it is said to be the only place where you can sight the
endangered green peafowl.

26. Malom Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala
A lush stretch of tropical green forest, Malom Wildlife
Sanctuary shelters a variety of species like Malabar hornbill,
flying squirrel, king cobra, rhesus monkey, python, porcupine,
wild boar, etc.
Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala
This sanctuary is best known for its Lion and Deer Safari. It
also boasts an elephant rehabilitation centre and a crocodile
farm.
Parappa Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala
Situated in Kasargod, Parappa Wildlife Sanctuary shelters
wildlife like Malabar Hornbill, slender loris, porcupine, turtle,
etc. The forest has a thick green cover and boasts several
medicinal herbs.
Chail Wildlife Sanctuary, Himachal Pradesh
This erstwhile royal hunting reserve is now a declared wildlife
sanctuary, minted thus in 1976. Chail boasts a variety of fauna
such as leopards, Indian munjtac, sambar, wild boar, etc. The
best time to visit here is from March to October.
National Parks
There are 104 existing national parks in India covering an area of 43,716 km2,
which is 1.33% of the geographical area of the country.
National Park refers to an area that is reserved for the protection and
betterment of the wildlife and biodiversity and the activities like
poaching, hunting, development, grazing, etc., are not permitted.
Besides this, its borders are well marked and distinct.
At present as of June 2020, there are 105 national parks in India. It
has the third-highest number of national parks in Asia after China and
Thailand. The list of top 30 national parks in India is given below
including their characteristic features.
1) Kaziranga National Park, Assam
 Kaziranga National Park is located in the north-eastern region of
India in the Nagaon and Golaghat districts of Assam.
 It is spread over 430 sq. km and is famous for being home to the
largest population of endangered one-horned rhinoceros.

27.  Kaziranga National Park accorded with the status of UNESCO
World Heritage Site in 1985 and in 2006 it was also declared a
tiger reserve by the govt. of India under its ‘Tiger Project.’
 It has a rich variety of plants, trees and wild animals. Its flora
comprises grasslands, evergreen forests, and tropical semi-
evergreen forests. Besides this, it also has water lilies, lotus, and
water hyacinth and Rattan Cane (climbing palm).
 It is home to over 30 mammalian species out of which 15 are in
the threatened category.
 The popular species of reptiles in the park include Snakes,
Tortoises, Alligator, Crocodile, etc. The park offers Jeep Safari
and Elephant safari for the tourist to allow them to see the
wildlife closely in their natural habitat.
2) Jim Corbett National Park, Uttarakhand
 Jim Corbett National Park is the oldest national park in
India spread over 500 square kilometres. It is situated in the
district of Nainital in the state of Uttarakhand, India and is also a
part of Corbett Tiger Reserve.
 It got its name from Jim Corbett that was a hunter who later
became a conservationist.
 It is home to royal Bengal tiger and various other types of wildlife
such as leopard, buffalo, deer, sloth bears, jackals, elephants,
etc. It is also home to around 600 species of birds.
 The flora of this place comprises tall grasslands, thick Sal forests,
winding streams, etc.
3) Kanha National Park, Madhya Pradesh
 Kanha National Park is counted among the best parks in Asia. It
was established in 1955 and located in central India in the state
of Madhya Pradesh.
 It is spread over 940 sq. km. and is home to 22 species of
large mammals out of which royal Bengal tigers is the main
highlight of this place.
 wild cats, sloth bears, wild dogs, cobras, pythons, etc.
4) Gir Forest National Park, Gujarat
 Gir Forest National Park is located in Gujarat. It was established
in 1977 and extends over 1420 sq. km.
 It is famous for spotting Asiatic lion in their natural habitat.
Before it became a wildlife sanctuary in 1965, it was used as a
hunting ground by the Nawabs of Junagadh.
 In the beginning, there were only 12 lions, fortunately, over time
this number is increased to around 600 lions.
 Its flora offers perfect shelter to over 200 species of birds. It is
also home to critically endangered species of long-billed and
white-backed vultures.

28. 5)Ranthambore National Park, Rajasthan
 Ranthambore Tiger Reserve is located at the foothills of Vindhya
and Aravali Hills in the Sawai Madhopur district of Rajasthan. It is
spread over 392 sq. km. of land.
 It is home to 40 species of mammals out of which the famous
ones are royal Bengal tiger, leopard, sloth bear, striped hyena,
desert fox, python, crocodile, etc.,
 including various species of deer like sambar, antlers, chital,
antelopes, etc. Some of the popular birds inhabiting this park
are woodpeckers, graylag goose, cuckoos, kingfisher, owl,
sandpipers, eagles, great crested grebe, etc.
BIOSPHERE RESERVES
Biosphere Reserves (BRs) are representative parts of natural and
cultural landscapes extending over large area of terrestrial or
coastal/marine ecosystems or a combination thereof and representative
examples of bio-geographic zones/provinces.
AIM –
1. conservationof genetic resources, species,and ecosystems;
2. scientific research and monitoring;and
3. Promoting sustainable developmentin communities of the surrounding
region.
Structure and functions of BR:

29. Biosphere reserves are demarcated into following 3 inter-related zones:
1. The core area: It involves an entirely secured and protected
ecosystem that contributes to the preservation of landscapes,
ecosystems, species and genetic variation. Non-
destructive research and other low-impact activities(such as
ecotourism) are generally undertaken
2. The buffer zone: It encompasses or adjoins the core areas. It is
utilized for activities compatible with sound ecological practices that
can fortify scientific research, monitoring, training, and education.
3. The transition area: It is the part of the reserve where the greatest
activity is permitted to promote economic and human development
that is sustainable.
Characteristics of Biosphere reserve The characteristic features of Biosphere
Reserves are:
(1) Each Biosphere Reserves are protected areas of land and/or coastal
environments wherein people are an integral component of the system.
Together, they constitute a world wide network linked by International
understanding for exchange of scientific information.
(2) The network of BRs include significant examples of biomes throughout
the world.
(3) Each BR includes one or more of the following categories:- (i) BRs are
representative examples of natural biomes.
BRs have examples of harmonious landscapes resulting from traditional
patterns of land-use.
(iv) BRs have examples of modified or degraded ecosystems capable of being
restored to more natural conditions.
Functions of Biosphere Reserves Conservation
• To ensure the conservation of landscapes, ecosystems, species and genetic
variations. • To encourage the traditional resource use systems; • To
understand the patterns and processes of functioning of ecosystems; • To
monitor the natural and human-caused changes on spatial and temporal
scales; Development • To promote, at the local level, economic development
which is culturally, socially and ecologically sustainable. • To develop the
strategies leading to improvement and management of natural resources;
Logistics support • To provide support for research, monitoring, education
and information exchange related to local, national and global issues of

30. conservation and development • Sharing of knowledge generated by
research through site specific training and education; and • Development of
community spirit in the management of natural resources.
The Biosphere Reserves differ from protected areas due to their
emphasis on :
(i) Conservation of overall biodiversity and landscape, rather than some
specific flagship species, to allow natural and evolutionary processes to
continue without any hindrance.
(ii) Different components of BRs like landscapes, habitats, and species and
land races.
(iii) Developmental activities, and resolution/mitigation of conflicts between
development and conservation,
(iv) Increase in broad-basing of stakeholders, especially local people’s
participation and their Training, compared to the features of scheme on
Wildlife Sanctuaries and National Parks.
(v) Sustainable environment friendly development, and sustained
coordination amongst different development organizations and agencies.
YEAR NAME STATES
2001 Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve West Bengal
2009 Simlipal Biosphere Reserve Odisha
2009 Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve Madhya Pradesh
2009 Nokrek Biosphere Reserve Meghalaya
2000 Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve Tamil Nadu
2004 Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve Uttarakhand
2001 Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve Tamil Nadu
2013 Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve Great Nicobar
2012 Achanakmar-Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve Chhattisgarh

31. 2016 Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve Kerala and Tamil Nadu
2018 Kanchenjunga Biosphere Reserve Part of North and West Sikkim districts