Continuation with last upload Kohlbergs moral development theory, its stages and criticism, Erik erikson's stages of psychological development - conflicts during each stage, Factors affecting growth and development. B.Ed first year notes

1. Kohlberg's Theory of Moral
Development
Kohlberg based his theory on a series of moral dilemmas presented to his study
subjects. Participants were also interviewed to determine the reasoning behind their
judgments in each scenario.
American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg developed one of the best-known theories
exploring some of these basic questions.His work modified and expanded upon Jean
Piaget's previous work but was more centered on explaining how children develop
moral reasoning.
How did the two theories differ? Piaget described a two-stage process of moral
development. Kohlberg extended Piaget's theory, proposing that moral development is
a continual process that occurs throughout the lifespan.
His theory outlines six stages of moral development within three different levels.
One example was "Heinz Steals the Drug."
In this scenario, a woman has cancer and her doctors believe only one drug
might save her. This drug had been discovered by a local pharmacist and he
was able to make it for $200 per dose and sell it for $2,000 per dose. The
woman's husband, Heinz, could only raise $1,000 to buy the drug.
He tried to negotiate with the pharmacist for a lower price or to be extended
credit to pay for it over time. But the pharmacist refused to sell it for any less or
to accept partial payments. Rebuffed, Heinz instead broke into the pharmacy
and stole the drug to save his wife. Kohlberg asked, "Should the husband have
done that?"
Stages of Moral Development
Kohlberg's theory is broken down into three primary levels. At each level of
moral development, there are two stages. Similar to how Piaget believed
that not all people reach the highest levels of cognitive development,
Kohlberg believed not everyone progresses to the highest stages of moral
development.

2. Level 1. Preconventional Morality
Preconventional morality is the earliest period of moral development. It lasts
until around the age of 9. At this age, children's decisions are primarily
shaped by the expectations of adults and the consequences for breaking the
rules. There are two stages within this level:

Stage 1 (Obedience and Punishment): The earliest stages of moral
development, obedience and punishment are especially common in young
children, but adults are also capable of expressing this type of reasoning.
According to Kohlberg, people at this stage see rules as fixed and absolute.
Obeying the rules is important because it is a way to avoid punishment.
 Stage 2 (Individualism and Exchange): At the individualism and
exchange stage of moral development, children account for individual points
of view and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs. In the
Heinz dilemma, children argued that the best course of action was the choice
that best served Heinz’s needs. Reciprocity is possible at this point in moral
development, but only if it serves one's own interests.

3. Level 2. Conventional Morality
The next period of moral development is marked by the acceptance of social
rules regarding what is good and moral. During this time, adolescents and
adults internalize the moral standards they have learned from their role
models and from society.
This period also focuses on the acceptance of authority and conforming to
the norms of the group. There are two stages at this level of morality:
 Stage 3 (Developing Good Interpersonal Relationships): Often
referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of the
interpersonal relationship of moral development is focused on living up
to social expectations and roles. There is an emphasis on conformity, being
"nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships.
 Stage 4 (Maintaining Social Order): This stage is focused on
ensuring that social order is maintained. At this stage of moral development,
people begin to consider society as a whole when making judgments. The
focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one’s
duty, and respecting authority.
Level 3. Postconventional Morality
At this level of moral development, people develop an understanding of
abstract principles of morality. The two stages at this level are:
 Stage 5 (Social Contract and Individual Rights): The ideas of a
social contract and individual rights cause people in the next stage to begin
to account for the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of other people.
Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of the
society should agree upon these standards.
 Stage 6 (Universal Principles): Kohlberg’s final level of moral
reasoning is based on universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At
this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice, even if they
conflict with laws and rules.

4. Criticisms
Kohlberg's theory played an important role in the development of moral
psychology. While the theory has been highly influential, aspects of the
theory have been critiqued for a number of reasons:
o Moral reasoning does not equal moral behavior: Kohlberg's theory is
concerned with moral thinking, but there is a big difference between
knowing what we ought to do versus our actual actions. Moral reasoning,
therefore, may not lead to moral behavior.
o Overemphasizes justice: Critics have pointed out that Kohlberg's theory of
moral development overemphasizes the concept of justice when making
moral choices. Factors such as compassion, caring, and other interpersonal
feelings may play an important part in moral reasoning.
o Cultural bias: Individualist cultures emphasize personal rights,
while collectivist cultures stress the importance of society and community.
Eastern, collectivist cultures may have different moral outlooks that
Kohlberg's theory does not take into account.
o Age bias: Most of his subjects were children under the age of 16 who
obviously had no experience with marriage. The Heinz dilemma may have
been too abstract for these children to understand, and a scenario more
applicable to their everyday concerns might have led to different results.
o Gender bias: Kohlberg's critics, including Carol Gilligan, have suggested
that Kohlberg's theory was gender-biased since all of the subjects in his
sample were male.10
Kohlberg believed that women tended to remain at the
third level of moral development because they place a stronger emphasis on
things such as social relationships and the welfare of others.

5. Erik Erikson's Stages of
Psychosocial Development
Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who developed one of the most popular
and influential theories of development. While his theory was impacted by
psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud's work, Erikson's theory centered on
psychosocial development rather than psychosexual development.
The stages that make up his theory are as follows:
Let's take a closer look at the background and different stages that make up
Erikson's psychosocial theory.
Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual stages, however, Erikson's theory described
the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan. Erikson was interested in
how social interaction and relationships played a role in the development and
growth of human beings.

6. Conflict During Each Stage
Each stage in Erikson's theory builds on the preceding stages and paves the
way for following periods of development. In each stage, Erikson believed
people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in development.
If people successfully deal with the conflict, they emerge from the stage with
psychological strengths that will serve them well for the rest of their lives.
If they fail to deal effectively with these conflicts, they may not develop the
essential skills needed for a strong sense of self.
Mastery Leads to Ego Strength
Erikson also believed that a sense of competence motivates behaviors and
actions. Each stage in Erikson's theory is concerned with becoming
competent in an area of life.
If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which is
sometimes referred to as ego strength or ego quality. If the stage is
managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy in that
aspect of development.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Erikson's
Theory
Erikson's theory also has its limitations and attracts valid criticisms. What
kinds of experiences are necessary to successfully complete each stage?
How does a person move from one stage to the next?
Criticism
One major weakness of psychosocial theory is that the exact mechanisms for
resolving conflicts and moving from one stage to the next are not well
described or developed. The theory fails to detail exactly what type of

7. experiences are necessary at each stage in order to successfully resolve the
conflicts and move to the next stage.
Support
One of the strengths of psychosocial theory is that it provides a broad
framework from which to view development throughout the entire lifespan.
It also allows us to emphasize the social nature of human beings and the
important influence that social relationships have on development.
Researchers have found evidence supporting Erikson's ideas about identity
and have further identified different sub-stages of identity formation. Some
research also suggests that people who form strong personal identities
during adolescence are better capable of forming intimate relationships
during early adulthood. Other research suggests, however, that identity
formation and development continues well into adulthood
Factors affecting growth and
development-
Internal & External
Factors affecting growth and developmentGrowth play a very crucial role in human life.
The growth and development of human beings are affecting by a variety of factors right
from the beginning of life in a mother’s womb. The factors influenced by growth and
development is broadly categories into internal and External Factors
Factors affecting growth and development
Internal Factors
All those factors which lie within the individual are called internal factors. These factors
include
1. Heredity factors
2. Biological or constitutional factors
3. Intelligence
4. Emotional Factors

8. 5. Social Nature
1. Heredity factors: Heredity factors play their part at the time of
conception in the mother’s womb. The heredity factor contribution includes-
 What is transferred to the offspring from its immediate parents in the form of
genes and chromosome
 The height, weight, colour of eyes and the skin, the characteristics of hair all these
decided by the hereditary influence
 The physical structure, nervous system and other things related to one’s
constitutional make –up, body chemistry and physical development are, to a great
extent, decided by heredity factors.
If the heredity contribution is satisfactory, then with minimum efforts of the
environmental forces, we get satisfactory results. However, in case the hereditary
contribution is quite merged, then we have to make tremendous efforts for achieving
desired success in terms of a child’s satisfactory growth and development
2. Biological or constitutional factors: A child’s
constitutional make-up somatic structure, physique and body chemistry influence his
growth and development throughout his life. This can be sustained in the following
manner-
 A child who is physically weak or has any internal deformities cannot be expected
to achieve satisfactory results in terms of his normal growth and development. He
usually suffers from an illness which is not only hampering his physical growth
but also affect his development in other spheres-mental, social and emotional
 The nervous system which controls the body movement affects the growth and
development of a child in cognitive spheres
 The endocrine or ductless glands are potent factors affecting the growth and
development of an individual from his birth. The chemistry of the body is
governed by these glands. Each of these glands secrets its own chemical known as
hormones. Ex- an imbalance in the pituitary gland may lead to an abnormal
increase or decrease in height
 Defective constitutional make-up like ugly face, short stature and any other
deformity of the body may give birth to feelings of inferiority of a child.
Moreover, he may face adjustment problem in the environment and consequently
may lag behind in the race of growth and development pertaining aspects of his
personality
3. Intelligence: Intelligence as the ability to learn, adjust and take up the
right decision at right time, has a great influence on the overall growth and development

9. of a child. It affects child social behaviours, moral judgement and emotional growth. It is
said the intelligence person is very well controlled over his emotions and is found to
carry on well with his personal and social adjustment. Thus, the physical, social,
emotional, moral and language development of a child is greatly affecting and controlled
by the level of his intelligence.
4. Emotional Factors: Emotional factors, e.g. emotional adjustability
and maturity, play a big role in influencing a person’s overall growth and development.
A child who is found to be overwhelmed by negative emotions like fear, anger,
jealousy etc is adversely affected in his physical, mental, social, moral and language
development.
5. Social Nature: A person’s socialization helps him in achieving
adjustment and advancement in other aspects of his growth and development. He may
learn from his environment, more by means of his social nature, which may prove to be a
boom to him for his proper growth and development
External Factors
The factors lying outside the individual in his environment are said to be the external
factors affecting growth and development. These include
1. The environment in the womb of the mother: The amount and quality of
nourishment available in the mother’s womb from the time of conception till his
birth is very important in the aspects of growth and development of the child. The
factors associated with this period are
 The Physical and mental health of the mother during pregnancy
 Single child or multiple child getting nourished in the womb
 The quality & quantity of nutrition received by the embryo within the womb of the
mother
 Normal or abnormal delivery
 Any damage or accident to the baby in the womb
2. The environment available after birth: Wheather a child gets from different
conditions and forces of his environment after his birth, influence his growth and
development in many ways. These include-
3. Accidents and incidents in life: The growth and development are greatly
affecting by the good and bad incidents and accidents which happens to meet in
his lifetime. Sometimes, a small injury or an incident may change the entire
development course in his life. For Example-If a child’s nervous system is

10. damaged in an accident, it will hamper his mental development and it turns it will
affect his development in other spheres-social, emotional, moral and physical
4. The quality of the physical environment, medical care and nourishment: A
child growth and development is greatly influenced by the quality of his physical
environment and medical care and nourishment available to him for his living and
working. These include open space, balanced diet, good living and working
conditions and proper medical care.
5. The quality of the facilities and opportunities provided by the social and
cultural forces: What a child gets from his social and cultural environment for the
growth and development of his potentials, influences the entire course of his
development. In a true sense, he develops and becomes what he permitted to and
desired by these social and cultural forces. A few such conditions are given below-
 Parents and family care received by the child
 Economic and social status of the parents and family
 The quality of the neighbourhood and the surrounding environment
 The quality of schooling received by the child
 The quality of peer group relationship and company of a child.
The growth and development is influence by both heredity and environment. If the
quality of a gene and chromosome transfer from parents to a child then we need
minimum environments efforts to achieve the maximum growth and development of a
child. Family is one of the most important factors in the child overall growth and
development in all spheres.