The document explores the concept of biodiversity, which encompasses the variety of life forms and their ecosystems on Earth, emphasizing its importance for maintaining ecological balance. It identifies key threats to both terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity, including climate change, pollution, habitat destruction, and overexploitation of resources while highlighting the necessity for conservation strategies. Additionally, it discusses various conservation approaches, including in-situ and ex-situ methods, and emphasizes the role of community-based conservation and economic incentives in protecting biodiversity.

1. Digital Assignment
EVS Biodiversity
Threats to
Biodiversity
and
Conservation of
Terrestrial and
Aquatic
Biodiversity
Vinit Shahdeo
15BIT0335

2. What is
BIODIVERSITY….???
The term "biodiversity" is a combination of two
words, "biology" and "diversity”. This word
originates from the Greek word BIOS = LIFE and
Latin word DIVERSITAS = VARIETY or
DIFFERENCE. The whole word BIO DIVERSITY
generally therefore means: VARIETY OF LIFE.
Biodiversity or Biological Diversity a sum of all the
different species of animals, plants, fungi, and
microbial organisms living on Earth and the variety
of habitats in which they live. It is the totality of
genes, species and ecosystem.

3. Why is biodiversity important???
Everything that lives in an ecosystem is part of the web of life, including humans.
Each species of vegetation and each creature has a place on the earth and plays a
vital role in the circle of life. Plant, animal, and insect species interact and depend
upon one another for what each offers, such as food, shelter, oxygen, and soil
enrichment.
Maintaining a wide diversity of species in each ecosystem is necessary to preserve
the web of life that sustains all living things. In his 1992 best-seller, "The Diversity
of Life," famed Harvard University biologist Edward O. Wilson -- known as the
"father of biodiversity," -- said, "It is reckless to suppose that biodiversity can be
diminished indefinitely without threatening humanity itself."

5. Levels of Biodiversity
Genetic Biodiversity
The first level of biodiversity, genetic diversity, is the level at which we can most
clearly observe the evolution of diversity. Genetic diversity includes the many
kinds of genes that are available for given members of a species, such as a family,
a population, or the entire species. This variety of genes allows the species to
have many kinds of heritable traits that allow it to survive through changing
environments.
For example, in a particularly cold winter, many individuals of a species may die
from lack of insulation, but if the population as a whole has genetic diversity for a
trait such as fat storage, then at least some members of the population will
survive and the species will not become extinct. The next year, more offspring will
have the valuable trait and the species will evolve to tolerate the cooler
environment.

6. Taxonomic Diversity
The next level of biodiversity, taxonomic diversity, refers to the variety of
individuals at a given hierarchical level in the scientific naming system. This could
be the number of different species, genera, families, or kingdoms. For example, a
cornfield may have hundreds of birds living in it, but they may represent only three
species that are all in one family, meaning that there is low taxonomic diversity. A
similar-sized area in a nearby forest may also have hundreds of birds living in it,
but these birds may be from twenty different species that belong to eight families
and three orders, representing a higher level of diversity. Around the world, crops
and livestock typically consist of only one species. These monocultures support a
low level of biodiversity.
Ecological Diversity
Ecological diversity is the variety of habitat types that are available in a given area.
These habitats can have different physical characteristics such as temperature and
soil type, as well as different organisms inhabiting them. When the habitat with all
its organisms and their complex interactions are considered together, it is termed
an ecosystem. Ecosystem diversity is typically the level that is discussed in relation
to biodiversity.

7. Five main threats to biodiversity are commonly recognized in the programs of
work of the Convention: invasive alien species, climate change, nutrient loading
and pollution, habitat change, and overexploitation. Unless we successfully
mitigate the impacts of these direct drivers of change on biodiversity, they will
contribute to the loss of biodiversity components, negatively affect ecosystem
integrity and hamper aspirations towards sustainable use.
In discussing threats to biodiversity it is important to keep in mind that, behind
these direct drivers of biodiversity loss, there are a number of indirect drivers that
interact in complex ways to cause human-induced changes in biodiversity. They
include demographic, economic, socio-political, cultural, religious, scientific and
technological factors, which influence human activities that directly impact on
biodiversity.
Indicators for trends in nutrient loading and invasive alien species have been
identified under the focal area addressed here, and are described below.
Information on habitat change is provided by the indicator trends in extent of
selected biomes, ecosystems and habitats. Overexploitation is discussed under the
focal area on sustainable use. While there is no single indicator of the impacts of
climate change on biodiversity, a number of indicators, including those on trends
in extent of selected biomes, ecosystems and habitats (particularly applied to coral
reefs, polar ice and glaciers, and certain types of forests and dry lands), abundance
and distribution of selected species, and incidence of human induced ecosystem
failure, can serve to derive trends where specific data are available. Because small,
fragmented ecosystems are more affected by changes in temperature and humidity
than large contiguous ecosystems with a more balanced micro-climate, trends in
connectivity/fragmentation of ecosystems provide an indicator of the vulnerability
of ecosystems to climate change.
Threats to

8. About Aquatic Biodiversity
Aquatic biodiversity can be defined as the variety of life and the ecosystems that
make up the freshwater, tidal, and marine regions of the world and their
interactions. Aquatic biodiversity encompasses freshwater ecosystems, including
lakes, ponds, reservoirs, rivers, streams, groundwater, and wetlands. It also consists
of marine ecosystems, including oceans, estuaries, salt marshes, sea grass beds,
coral reefs, kelp beds, and mangrove forests. Aquatic biodiversity includes all
unique species, their habitats and interaction between them. It consists of
phytoplankton, zooplankton, aquatic plants, insects, fish, birds, mammals, and
others.
Importance of Aquatic Biodiversity
Aquatic biodiversity has enormous economic and aesthetic value and is largely
responsible for maintaining and supporting overall environmental health. Humans
have long depended on aquatic resources for food, medicines, and materials as well
as for recreational and commercial purposes such as fishing and tourism. Aquatic
organisms also rely upon the great diversity of aquatic habitats and resources for
food, materials, and breeding grounds.

9. Threats to Aquatic Biodiversity
Factors including overexploitation of species, the introduction of exotic species,
pollution from urban, industrial, and agricultural areas, as well as habitat loss and
alteration through damming and water diversion all contribute to the declining
levels of aquatic biodiversity in both freshwater and marine environments. As a
result, valuable aquatic resources are becoming increasingly susceptible to both
natural and artificial environmental changes. Thus, conservation strategies to
protect and conserve aquatic life are necessary to maintain the balance of nature
and support the availability of resources for future generations.
Human activities are causing species to disappear at an
alarming rate. Aquatic species are at a higher risk of extinction than mammals and
birds. Losses of this magnitude impact the entire ecosystem, depriving valuable
resources used to provide food, medicines, and industrial materials to human
beings. Runoff from agricultural and urban areas, the invasion of exotic species,
and the creation of dams and water diversion have been identified as the greatest
challenges to freshwater environments (Allan and Flecker 1993; Scientific
American 1997). Overexploitation of aquatic organisms for various purposes is the
greatest threat to marine environments, thus the need for sustainable exploitation
has been identified by the Environmental Defense Fund as the key priority in
preserving marine biodiversity. Other threats to aquatic biodiversity include urban
development and resource-based industries, such as mining and forestry that
destroy or reduce natural habitats. In addition, air and water pollution,
sedimentation and erosion, and climate change also pose threats to aquatic
biodiversity.

10. Factors affecting the Aquatic Biodiversity
Overexploitation of species — Overexploitation of species affects the loss of
genetic diversity and the loss in the relative species abundance of both individual
and /or groups of interacting species. The population size gets reduced because of
disturbances in age structure and sex composition. Efficient gears remove quick
growing larger individuals. Consequently, the proportion of slow growing ones
increases and the average size of individuals in a population decreases. Over-
fishing causes change in the genetic structure of fish populations due to loss of
some alleles. Thus, genetic diversity gets reduced.
Habitat modification — Physical modification of habitat may lead to species
extinction. This is mainly caused due to damming, deforestation, diversion of
water for irrigation and conversion of marshy land and small water bodies for other
purposes. Construction of dams on river impedes upstream migration of fishes and
displaces populations from their normal spawning grounds and separate the
population in two smaller groups. Deforestation leads to catchment area
degradation due to soil erosion which results into sedimentation and siltation. This
not only affect the breeding ground of aquatic organisms but cause gill clogging of
small fishes also.
Pollution load — four forms of pollutants can be distinguished-
Poisonous pollutants — Agrochemicals, metals, acids and phenol cause mortality,
if present in a high concentration and affect the reproductive functionality of fish
(Kime, 1995).
Suspended solids — it affects the respiratory processes and secretion of protective
mucus making the fish susceptible to infection of various pathogens.
Sewage and organic pollutants — they cause deoxygenation due to
eutrophication causing mortality in fishes.
Thermal pollution — it cause increase in ambient temperature and reduce
dissolved oxygen concentration leading to death of some sensitive species.

11. Conservation Approaches
Aquatic conservation strategies support sustainable development by protecting
biological resources in ways that will preserve habitats and ecosystems. In order
for biodiversity conservation to be effective, management measures must be broad
based.
Aquatic areas that have been damaged or suffered habitat loss or degradation can
be restored. Even species populations that have suffered a decline can be targeted
for restoration (e.g., Pacific Northwest salmon populations).
An aquatic bio- reserve is a defined space within a water body in which fishing is
banned or other restrictions are placed in an effort to protect plants, animals, and
habitats, ultimately conserving biodiversity. These bio-reserves can also be used
for educational purposes, recreation, and tourism as well as potentially increasing
fisheries yields by enhancing the declining fish populations. These bio-reserves are
also very similar to marine protected areas, fishery reserves, sanctuaries, and parks.
Bioregional management is a total ecosystem strategy, which regulates factors
affecting aquatic biodiversity by balancing conservation, economic, and social
needs within an area. This consists of both small-scale biosphere reserves and
larger reserves.
Watershed management is an important approach towards aquatic diversity
conservation. Rivers and streams, regardless of their condition, often go
unprotected since they often pass through more than one political jurisdiction,
making it difficult to enforce conservation and management of resources.
However, in recent years, the protection of lakes and small portions of watersheds
organized by local watershed groups has helped this situation.
Plantation of trees in the catchment area of water body prevent soil erosion and
subsequently reduce the problem of siltation in water body resulting in better
survival of aquatic organisms.

12. Avoid the establishment of industries, chemical plants and thermal power plants
near the water resources as their discharge affect the ecology of water body
resulted in loss of biodiversity.
The World Resources Institute documents that the designation of a particular
species as threatened or endangered has historically been the primary method of
protecting the biodiversity.
Many specialized programs should be instituted to protect biodiversity. For
example, the USDA Forest Service started a cooperative state-federal program
with a goal to restore the health of riverine systems and associated species.
Regulatory measures must be taken on wastewater discharge in the water body to
conserve biological diversity.
Increasing public awareness is one of the most important ways to conserve aquatic
biodiversity. This can be accomplished through educational programs, incentive
programs, and volunteer monitoring programs.
Various organizations and conferences that research biodiversity and associated
conservation strategies help to identify areas of future research, analyze current
trends in aquatic biodiversity.

13. Terrestrial Biodiversity
Terrestrial refers to things having to do with the land. Biodiversity is the variation
of life forms within a given ecosystem or biome. Combine the two, and there you
go!
Terrestrial Biodiversity: the variation of life forms within a given ecosystem or
biome that refers to species that inhabit the land.

14. Some Facts to Explore
• India is known for its rich heritage of biodiversity.
• India is one of the 17 mega-diverse countries in the world.
• With only 2.4 % of the world’s area, India accounts for 7–8 % of the
world’s recorded plant and animal species.
• India’s ten biogeographic zones possess an exemplary diversity of
ecological habitats like alpine forests, grasslands, wetlands, coastal and
marine ecosystems, and desert ecosystems.
• Amongst the existing biota, 91,307 species of animals of which 2,557
Protista, 12,470 general invertebrates, 69,903 arthropods, 4,994 vertebrates,
and 45,500 species of plants as well as 5,650 microbial species have been
documented in its 10 bio-geographic regions.
• India has four out of thirty-four global biodiversity hotspots, which is an
indicator of high degree of endemism (of species) in India.
• About 5,150 plant species and 1,837 animal species are endemic to India.
• India’s biodiversity includes wild relatives of agricultural crops and
domesticated animals.
• India has 16 major types and 251 subtypes of forests.
• Indigenous medicine systems utilize nearly 6,500 native plants for both
human and animal healthcare.
• India’s diverse preponderance of native tribal and ethnic groups has
contributed significantly in the conservation and diversification of
biodiversity. Its cultural and ethnic diversity includes over 550 tribal
communities of 227 ethnic groups spread over 5,000 forested villages. India
proudly upholds the tradition of nature conservation.

15. • In 252 B.C., the Emperor Asoka established protected areas (PAs) for
mammals, birds, fish and forests through a proclamation. Jim Corbett
National Park covering an area of 325 sq km came into being as the India’s
first and world’s third National Park in 1936.
• India has currently 4.79 % of total geographic area under an elaborate
network of PAs, which includes 99 National Parks, 513 wildlife sanctuaries,
43 conservation reserves, 4 community reserves and 3 biodiversity heritage
sites.
• India has a National Wildlife Action Plan, which envisages 10 % of the
geographical area of the country under PA coverage.
Threatened Indian Species

16. Conservation Approaches
International treaties:-
• Various treaties have helped conserve biota.
• A major one is CITES, the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, prepared in 1973.
• It bans international trade and transport of body parts of endangered
organisms.
• The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), from the Rio Conference
in 1992, aims to:
1. Conserve biodiversity
2. Use it sustainably
3.Ensure fair distribution of its benefits
The CBD has been signed by 188 nations, but not by the United States.
BIODIVERSITY CONVENSIONS
 The first convention on biodiversity organized at Rio De Janerio, capital of
Brazil from June 5 to 16, 1992 named as United Nation Conference On
Environment and Development
(UNCED), better known as Rio Summit to maintain ecological balance
and enrich biodiversity. The agreement on biodiversity signed by 150
countries including three programmes-
 To ensure conservation of biodiversity
 Sustainable use of biodiversity
 Rational and equitable share of profit to accrue from use of genetic
resources.

17.  The second convention organized at Johannesburg in 2002 called World
Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) where the Biodiversity and
Sustainable Ecosystem Management was the issue.
CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY: INSITU
AND EX-SITU
In-situ conservation: Conservation of a species is best done by protecting its
habitat along with all the other species that live in it in nature.
Ex-situ conservation: However, there are situations in which an endangered
species is so close to extinction that unless alternate methods are instituted, the
species may be rapidly driven to extinction.
• In situ
• Sacred groves and lakes
• Biosphere Reserves
• Terrestrial
• Marine
• National parks, wildlife sanctuaries
• Ex situ
• Sacred plant home garden
• Seed Bank, Gene bank, Cryopreservation
• Botanical garden, Zoological garden, Aquaria

18. Captive breeding
Many endangered species are being bred in zoos, to boost populations and
reintroduce them into the wild. But this is worthless if there is not adequate
habitat left in the wild.
Umbrella species
When habitat is preserved to meet the needs of an “umbrella species,” it
helps preserve habitat for many other species. (Thus, primary species serve
as an “umbrella” for others.)
• Large species with large home ranges (like tigers and other top
predators) are good umbrella species.
• So are flagship species, or charismatic species that win public
affection, like the panda.
Biodiversity hotspots
Biodiversity hotspot = an area that supports an especially high number of
species endemic to the area, found nowhere else in the world.

19. Community-based conservation
• Many environmentalists from developed nations who want to establish
reserves in developing nations have been viewed with resentment by local
people.
• But today many efforts work with local communities to get them invested in
the conservation of their own natural resources.
• This community-based conservation makes efforts more complex, but will
probably be more successful in the long run.
Economic incentives
Debt-for-nature swaps = a non-governmental organization (NGO) raises
money and offers to pay off debt for a developing country, in exchange for
parks, reserves, habitat protection
Conservation concession = an NGO offers money to a developing nation’s
government for a concession to some of its land—for conservation, rather
than for resource extraction

20. Biodiversity is our life. If the Biodiversity got lost at this rate then in near
future, the survival of human being will be threatened. So, it is our moral
duty to conserve Biodiversity as well our Environment. Long-term
maintenance of species and their management requires co-operative efforts
across entire landscapes. Biodiversity should be dealt with at scale of
habitats or ecosystems rather than at species level.
Presented By:-
Vinit Shahdeo
15BIT0335