1. The phase rule describes the relationship between the number of phases, components, and degrees of freedom in a system at equilibrium. It states that the degrees of freedom F equals the number of components C minus the number of phases P plus two.
2. A phase diagram graphically represents the phase equilibria of a system. The phase diagram for ice, water, and water vapor shows three single-phase regions and three phase boundary lines where two phases coexist in equilibrium.
3. The triple point is the only condition where ice, water, and water vapor can coexist in equilibrium, with zero degrees of freedom. It occurs at a temperature of 0.01 degrees C and a pressure of 4.
Phase equilibria: phase, components and degrees of freedom. The phase rule and its
thermodynamic derivation. The phase diagrams of water and sulphur systems, partially
miscible liquid pairs: the phenol and water and nicotine-water systems. Completely
miscible liquid pairs and their separation by fractional distillation. Freeze drying
(lyophilization).
THE PHASE RULE
phase rule
degree of freedom in mixture
one component system
two component system
pressure temperature diagram sulfur hydrogen
eutectic eutectoid mixture
Presentation suitable mainly for Engineering Students
Highlights: Phase Rule Derivation, Cooling curves, Phase Diagram of water, Carbon dioxide, lead-Silver system, zinc-magnesium system and sodium sulphate-water system
Phase equilibria: phase, components and degrees of freedom. The phase rule and its
thermodynamic derivation. The phase diagrams of water and sulphur systems, partially
miscible liquid pairs: the phenol and water and nicotine-water systems. Completely
miscible liquid pairs and their separation by fractional distillation. Freeze drying
(lyophilization).
THE PHASE RULE
phase rule
degree of freedom in mixture
one component system
two component system
pressure temperature diagram sulfur hydrogen
eutectic eutectoid mixture
Presentation suitable mainly for Engineering Students
Highlights: Phase Rule Derivation, Cooling curves, Phase Diagram of water, Carbon dioxide, lead-Silver system, zinc-magnesium system and sodium sulphate-water system
Henry Law, Its Limitation and Active MassVinod Dahiya
https://youtu.be/rxmovBZQF6g
In this video you will study about Henry Law, Its limitations, What is Active Maas, how it is calculated with the help of example
RAOULT'S LAW ( Physical & Analytical Chemistry)Hasnaın Sheıkh
Name; Hasnain Nawaz
Surname : Shaikh
ROLL NO: 16 CH 42
B.E: Chemical Engineering (In Progress).
Mehran University of Engineering and Technology
Jamshore, ISO 9001 Certified.
Slides for the eLearning course Separation and purification processes in biorefineries (https://open-learn.xamk.fi) in IMPRESS project.
Section: Distillation
Subject: 1.1 Vapor Liquid Equilibrium
Henry Law, Its Limitation and Active MassVinod Dahiya
https://youtu.be/rxmovBZQF6g
In this video you will study about Henry Law, Its limitations, What is Active Maas, how it is calculated with the help of example
RAOULT'S LAW ( Physical & Analytical Chemistry)Hasnaın Sheıkh
Name; Hasnain Nawaz
Surname : Shaikh
ROLL NO: 16 CH 42
B.E: Chemical Engineering (In Progress).
Mehran University of Engineering and Technology
Jamshore, ISO 9001 Certified.
Slides for the eLearning course Separation and purification processes in biorefineries (https://open-learn.xamk.fi) in IMPRESS project.
Section: Distillation
Subject: 1.1 Vapor Liquid Equilibrium
Ekeeda Provides Online Engineering Subjects Video Lectures and Tutorials of Mumbai University (MU) Courses. Visit us: https://ekeeda.com/streamdetails/University/Mumbai-University
Infomatica, as it stands today, is a manifestation of our values, toil, and dedication towards imparting knowledge to the pupils of the society. Visit us: http://www.infomaticaacademy.com/
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
2. 2
A proper understanding of certain systems and
processes in pharmaceutical practice necessitates
knowledge of the principles that govern the equilibria
between solid, liquid and gaseous phases.
The Phase Rule
Gibbs created the phase rule, which relates:
the effect of the least number of independent
variables (temperature, pressure and concentration)
upon
the various phases (solid, liquid and gaseous) that
exist in an equilibrium system containing a given
number of components.
3. 3
Phase
A phase is defined as any homogeneous and
physically distinct part of a system that is separated
from other parts of the system by definite boundaries.
For example, ice, water, and water vapour are three
separate phases; each is physically distinct and there
are definite boundaries between them.
Pure liquids or solutions constitute homogeneous
phases, but
two immiscible liquids (or solutions) constitute two
phases since there is a definite boundary between
them.
A mixture of gases always constitutes one phase
because the mixture is homogeneous and there are no
bounding surfaces between the different gases in the
mixture.
4. 4
Number of components
The number of components of a system is the
number of constituents expressed in the form of a
chemical formula.
For example in the 3-phase system ice, water,
water vapour, the no of components is 1, since each
phase is expressed as H20.
A mixture of salt and water is a 2 component
system since both chemical species are
independent.
5. 5
Degrees of freedom
The number of degrees of freedom is the number of
variable conditions (e.g. temperature, pressure, and
concentration) that may affect the phase equilibrium.
The relationship between:
the number of phases P,
components C,
degrees of freedom F
for equilibria that are influenced only by temperature,
pressure, and concentration is given by equation
Gibbs phase rule: F = C – P + 2
6. 6
The phase diagram for the ice-water-water vapour
system
(phase diagram = graphical representation which
indicates the phase equilibrium)
Systems Containing One Component
Each area correspond to a
single phase.
The number of degrees of
freedom in each area is :
F = C - P + 2
F = 1 – 1 +2 = 2
This means that temperature and pressure can be
varied independently within these areas without
change in number of phases
The phase diagram for the ice-water-water vapour
system
(phase diagram = graphical representation which
indicates the phase equilibrium)
7. 7
1 variable exists when equilibrium
is established between 2 phases.
if the pressure is altered the
temperature will assume a
particular value and vice versa
Independent variation will alter no. of phases
To keep the no. of phases P and T must be
changed at the same time
For points that lie on one of the lines AB , AC, or AD,
these lines form the boundaries between different phases
2 phases exist in equilibrium with each other.
F = 1 – 2 + 2 = 1
8. 8
Melting Point
The boundary AD represents the coexistence of liquid
water in solid ice at various temperature and pressures.
AD therefore indicates the effect of pressure on the
melting point of ice.
If at any point on this line the tempreature is increased
while the pressure is maintained constant, then all the
ice will be converted to liquid water.
i.e., only one phase will remain instead of two original
phases that were in equilibrium at the point AD.
Thus, in order to maintain
equilibrium conditions between
the two phases, the temperature
and pressure must not be varied
independently of each other.
9. 9
Boiling Point
The boundary AB, which is known as the vapour
pressure curve, represents the coexistence of liquid
water and water vapour under various conditions.
The temperature and pressure again cannot be varied
independently otherwise a change from a two-phase
system to a single-phase system will occur,
For example, if the pressure is kept constant at any
point along AB while the temperature is increased, then
all the water will be converted to vapour and only one
phase will remain.
AB therefore represents the effect of
pressure on the boiling point of water.
Critical temperature (374°C). This is
the temperature above which it is
impossible to liquefy water vapor no
matter you increase the pressure.
10. 10
Triple Point
The boundary lines meet at A, which is the only point
in the diagram where 3 phases may coexist in
equilibrium and it is therefore termed a triple point.
F = 1 – 3 + 2 = 0
The system is invariant;
i.e., any change in P or T
will result in an alteration
of the number of phases
that are present.
T = 0.0098oC
P = 4.58 mmHg
11. 11
Sublimation (Freeze Drying)
The boundary AC, which is known as the sublimation
pressure curve for ice, indicates the conditions for the
coexistence of vapour and solid phases in equilibrium.
A mass of ice may be converted directly into water
vapour by heating, provided that the pressure is kept
below triple point pressure. This is termed
Sublimation, Lyophilization or Freeze drying.
This transition is particularly
valuable in drying compounds
that are sensitive to the
higher temperature e.g.
drying of blood plasma, blood
serum and penicillin.
13. 13
Study Questions
Define the following terms:
[homogeneous, heterogeneous, phase diagram, sublimation, Lyophilization, melting point, boiling point,
triple point, etc]
Respond to the following questions:
Illustrate the process of sublimation in a pharmaceutical system
Group work discussional questions:
Discuss the variations in a solution that may constitute the pharmaceutical material phase
changes equilibrium
What are the main key points to consider when a pharmaceutical system is undergoing phase
changes within a system.