Phase equilibria: phase, components and degrees of freedom. The phase rule and its
thermodynamic derivation. The phase diagrams of water and sulphur systems, partially
miscible liquid pairs: the phenol and water and nicotine-water systems. Completely
miscible liquid pairs and their separation by fractional distillation. Freeze drying
(lyophilization).
THE PHASE RULE
phase rule
degree of freedom in mixture
one component system
two component system
pressure temperature diagram sulfur hydrogen
eutectic eutectoid mixture
Phase equilibria: phase, components and degrees of freedom. The phase rule and its
thermodynamic derivation. The phase diagrams of water and sulphur systems, partially
miscible liquid pairs: the phenol and water and nicotine-water systems. Completely
miscible liquid pairs and their separation by fractional distillation. Freeze drying
(lyophilization).
THE PHASE RULE
phase rule
degree of freedom in mixture
one component system
two component system
pressure temperature diagram sulfur hydrogen
eutectic eutectoid mixture
Infomatica, as it stands today, is a manifestation of our values, toil, and dedication towards imparting knowledge to the pupils of the society. Visit us: http://www.infomaticaacademy.com/
Presentation suitable mainly for Engineering Students
Highlights: Phase Rule Derivation, Cooling curves, Phase Diagram of water, Carbon dioxide, lead-Silver system, zinc-magnesium system and sodium sulphate-water system
Slides for the eLearning course Separation and purification processes in biorefineries (https://open-learn.xamk.fi) in IMPRESS project.
Section: Distillation
Subject: 1.1 Vapor Liquid Equilibrium
Infomatica, as it stands today, is a manifestation of our values, toil, and dedication towards imparting knowledge to the pupils of the society. Visit us: http://www.infomaticaacademy.com/
Presentation suitable mainly for Engineering Students
Highlights: Phase Rule Derivation, Cooling curves, Phase Diagram of water, Carbon dioxide, lead-Silver system, zinc-magnesium system and sodium sulphate-water system
Slides for the eLearning course Separation and purification processes in biorefineries (https://open-learn.xamk.fi) in IMPRESS project.
Section: Distillation
Subject: 1.1 Vapor Liquid Equilibrium
Ekeeda Provides Online Engineering Subjects Video Lectures and Tutorials of Mumbai University (MU) Courses. Visit us: https://ekeeda.com/streamdetails/University/Mumbai-University
its the ppt about phase rule which is the part of physical and inorganic chemistry in GTU. it explains how the phase rule is applicable in chemical eng.
Longifolene is common naturally occurring, oily liquid hydrocarbon found in the high boiling fraction of certain pine resins.
Juvabione is a terpene- derived-keto-ester that has been isolated from plant sources.
Morphine is a major component of opium,it is isolated from poppy straw of the opium poppy.
Graphene is a single layer of carbon from the graphite.
Graphene is the strongest and the thinnest material known to exist.
Graphene is a 2- dimensional network of carbon atom. It is more efficient than silicon transistors. It can run at higher frequency. It is transparent in nature.
Conducting polymers have extended p-orbital system, through which electrons can be moved from one end to another and of polymer. Also, when a polymer is doped, there are changes in it due to resonance the charge can drift through the chain, and generating the conductivity.
Alkenes by absorption of light activated to higher energy singlet & triplet state and undergoes chemical reaction. These reactions are mainly:- 1. Cis - trans isomerization
2. Dimerization
3. Cycloaddition
These are chemical shift reagents and solvent induced shifts have their application in resolving the NMR Spectra of complex structures by inducing shift with respect to reference compound. Thus useful in interpretation of structures of complex organic compounds.
Hypervalent refers to the main group elements that breaks the octet rule and firmly has more than right electrons in it's valence shell. These are non - metallic oxidation reagents.
Polymer supported Catalysts are in the form of network polymers in the form of beads.these polymers support can easily be recycled at the end the reaction mixture . It facilitates the purification process and isolation.
Biocatalysts are substance which alters to promote the reaction and a substance especially an enzyme, that initiates or modified the rate of chemical reaction.
Conducting polymers are those polymers which conduct electricity due to extended P- orbital system. Due to this extension of P orbital electrons can move from one end to another end of the polymer.
(May 29th, 2024) Advancements in Intravital Microscopy- Insights for Preclini...Scintica Instrumentation
Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful tool utilized to study cellular behavior over time and space in vivo. Much of our understanding of cell biology has been accomplished using various in vitro and ex vivo methods; however, these studies do not necessarily reflect the natural dynamics of biological processes. Unlike traditional cell culture or fixed tissue imaging, IVM allows for the ultra-fast high-resolution imaging of cellular processes over time and space and were studied in its natural environment. Real-time visualization of biological processes in the context of an intact organism helps maintain physiological relevance and provide insights into the progression of disease, response to treatments or developmental processes.
In this webinar we give an overview of advanced applications of the IVM system in preclinical research. IVIM technology is a provider of all-in-one intravital microscopy systems and solutions optimized for in vivo imaging of live animal models at sub-micron resolution. The system’s unique features and user-friendly software enables researchers to probe fast dynamic biological processes such as immune cell tracking, cell-cell interaction as well as vascularization and tumor metastasis with exceptional detail. This webinar will also give an overview of IVM being utilized in drug development, offering a view into the intricate interaction between drugs/nanoparticles and tissues in vivo and allows for the evaluation of therapeutic intervention in a variety of tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary collaboration continues to drive the advancements of novel therapeutic strategies.
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
2. Content 2
Introduction
Definition of phase ,component and degree of
freedom
Equilibrium and it’s type
Conditions for phase equilibrium
Gibbs phase rule
One component system
Conculsion
References
3. Introduction 3
Phase equilibrium is the study of the equilibrium between two or more phases of
heterogeneous systems.
The number of phases that can exist together at equilibrium depends upon the
temperature,pressure,and composition of various phases
J.W.Gibbs gave a generalization which applicable to all heterogeneous equilibria known as
phase rule.
It is mathematically defined as:
F = C-P+2
Where F = number of degrees of freedom
C = number of components
P = number of phases
4. Phase 4
Phase is defined as any homogeneous and physically distinct part of a system
which is separated by a well defined boundary, physically and chemically
different from other parts of system.
A system may contain one or more than one
phases. For example a system containing ice,
Liquid water and water vapour is a three
Phase system
5. Component 5
For a system in equilibrium it is the minimum number of independent chemical
constituents in terms of which the composition of each phase can be expressed
either directly or in terms of a chemical equation.
The independent chemical constituents is the one whose concentration can be
varied independent of other constituent of the system.
For example : NaCl solution it contain solid NaCl and water.There are two
component NaCl and water. The composition of each phase can be expressed in
terms of two constituent NaCl and water.
Note:
The number of components may or may not be equal to the actual
number of constituents present in the system
6. Degree of freedom 6
Degree of freedom is defined as the number of variables,
such as temperature, pressure and concentration, which
can be varied independently without changing the
number of phases.
The degree of freedom in phase rule equations is given by
F = C-P+2
For example a system containing two component gaseous
mixture have three degree of freedom.
Same result is obtained by phase rule equation
F = C-P+2 = 2-1+2 = 3
7. Equilibrium 7
A system is said to be in the state of equilibrium if the properties like
temperature, pressure and composition etc. of the various phases do
not under go any change with time.
Equilibrium is of two types:
1. True equilibrium : A system is said to be in a state of true
equilibrium if the same state can be obtained by approach from
either direction.For example, the following equilibrium
This equilibrium can be attained from either side i.e. By melting
of ice or by freezing of water. Hence,it is a true equilibrium.
8. 2 Metastable equilibrium: 8
A system is said to be in a state of metastable equilibrium
if the same state can be approached only from one direction and that too by very careful
change of conditions.
For example, water at -2°C can be obtained by careful cooling of
water without appearance of ice but it is not possible to obtain it by melting of ice.Hence,
water at -2°C is said be in a state of metastable equilibrium.
In this figure curve OA` represents the metastable equilibrium between liquid water and
vapour phase.
If a small crystal of ice is added to the supercooled
liquid , the liquid at once solidifies and changes into
Ice and curve OA` merges into curve OB.
9. Condition for phase equilibrium 9
A system having more than one phase is in equilibrium if following conditions are
satisfied.
1. Thermal Equilibrium: In this state the temperature of all the phases must be
same. If temperature is not same than heat will flow from one part of system
to another part.
2. Mechanical Equilibrium: In this condition ,all the phases of system are under
the same pressure . Otherwise , the volume change from one phase to
another phase.
3. Chemical Equilibrium: In the state of chemical equilibrium, the chemical
potential of a component must be same in all phases.
10. Gibbs Phase Rule 10
J. Willard Gibbs gives a relationship between the number of phases,P, the
number of components,C, and the number of degree of freedom F . This
relationship is known as phase rule.
F=C-P+2
Derivation of phase rule
Consider a heterogeneous system having P phases (P1,P2,P3,....Pn) and
components C (C1,C2,C3,….Cn). Then degree of freedom F is given by
F = (Total no. Of variables)- ( No. Of relationship between variables at
equilibrium)
11. Cont... 11
The total number of of variables
1. one is temperature and one is pressure variable for whole system.
2. P(C-1) are composition variables.
Total number of variables = P(C-1) +1+1
= P(C-1)+2
. Number of relationship between variables at equilibrium
C(P-1)
Thus degree of freedom = [P(C-1)+2]-[C(P-1)] = PC-P+2-PC+C = C-P+2
This Is the Gibbs phase rule.
12. One component system 12
Under nomal conditions water exists in phases namely liquid water,
ice and water vapour.
All these phases can be represented by single constituent ‘Water’
so it is one component system.
The number phases that can exists at any time depends on
the conditions of temperature and pressure.
14. 14
Phase diagram of water consists the following three curves
1 Curve OA:It gives the equilibrium between liquid water and water vapours .it is
called vapour pressure curve of water. The degree of freedom for this curve is given by:
F =C-P+2 =1-2+2 = 1
2 Curve OB: It is the curve which represents the equilibrium between the ice and water
vapours. This is sublimation curve of ice. The degree of freedom for this curve is given by:
F= C-P+2 =1-2+2 =1
3 Curve OC: It is the curve which represents the equilibrium between ice and liquid water.
This is the melting point curve of ice.Degree of freedom for this curve is given by:
F = C-P+2 =1-2+2 = 1
4 Curve OA’ : This is the metastable curve for supercooled liquid. It is seen in the phase
diagram curve OA’ lies above the curve OB. Hence ,vapour pressure of metastable system is
higher than of the stable system at same temperature.
15. Areas AOC,AOB and BOC 15
The areas AOC, AOB and BOC in the phase diagram show the conditions of temperature and pressure at
which a single phase ice,water or vapours can exist.
It is necessary to specify both temperature and pressure to define a system in these areas. The degree
of freedom for these areas is given by:
F =C-P+2 = 1-1+2 = 2
So these areas are bivariant system.
Triple point:
The point ‘O’ in the phase diagram represents triple point of water system
The curve oA ,OB and OC meets at triple point ‘O’ . At this point all the three phases
are exist in equilibrium . Only one such point is possible.
The degree of freedom at this point is given by:
F =C-P+2 = 1-3+2 = 0
So the system is invariant or non-variant at this point.
16. Conclusion: 16
Phase equilibria gives the conditions that must be specified for a system to exist
in equilibrium.
A generalization is given by J.W.Gibbs which predict the conditions that a must
specified for a system to exhibit equilibrium.
This generalization is known as phase rule. This rule is mathematically given as:
F= C-P+2
The degree of freedom is calculated by this rule.
17. References 17
1. ^ Gibbs,J.W., Scientific Papers (Daver , New York,1961)
2. ^Atkins ,P.W. ; de Paula, J.(2006) Physical chemistry (8th
ed.). Oxford University
3. Principles of physical chemistry by B.R.Puri ,L.R.Sharm,
Madan S.Pathania.
4. Physical chemistry by S.Kiran.