HSAB concept is an initialism for "hard and soft (Lewis) acids and bases". Also known as the Pearson acid-base concept, HSAB is widely used in chemistry for explaining stability of compounds, reaction mechanisms and pathways.
HSAB concept is an initialism for "hard and soft (Lewis) acids and bases". Also known as the Pearson acid-base concept, HSAB is widely used in chemistry for explaining stability of compounds, reaction mechanisms and pathways.
Presentation suitable mainly for Engineering Students
Highlights: Phase Rule Derivation, Cooling curves, Phase Diagram of water, Carbon dioxide, lead-Silver system, zinc-magnesium system and sodium sulphate-water system
Infomatica, as it stands today, is a manifestation of our values, toil, and dedication towards imparting knowledge to the pupils of the society. Visit us: http://www.infomaticaacademy.com/
Nernst distribution law and its application to association and dissociation of solute in one of the solvent. Processes of extraction, derivation of formula for the amount of solute left unextracted after nth extraction.
Quantum yield, experimental arrangement, reasons for high and low Quantum yield, problems, photochemical reactions, kinetics of photochemical decomposition of HI, photosensitized reaction, mechanism of photosensitization,
THE PHASE RULE
phase rule
degree of freedom in mixture
one component system
two component system
pressure temperature diagram sulfur hydrogen
eutectic eutectoid mixture
Presentation suitable mainly for Engineering Students
Highlights: Phase Rule Derivation, Cooling curves, Phase Diagram of water, Carbon dioxide, lead-Silver system, zinc-magnesium system and sodium sulphate-water system
Infomatica, as it stands today, is a manifestation of our values, toil, and dedication towards imparting knowledge to the pupils of the society. Visit us: http://www.infomaticaacademy.com/
Nernst distribution law and its application to association and dissociation of solute in one of the solvent. Processes of extraction, derivation of formula for the amount of solute left unextracted after nth extraction.
Quantum yield, experimental arrangement, reasons for high and low Quantum yield, problems, photochemical reactions, kinetics of photochemical decomposition of HI, photosensitized reaction, mechanism of photosensitization,
THE PHASE RULE
phase rule
degree of freedom in mixture
one component system
two component system
pressure temperature diagram sulfur hydrogen
eutectic eutectoid mixture
Phase equilibria: phase, components and degrees of freedom. The phase rule and its
thermodynamic derivation. The phase diagrams of water and sulphur systems, partially
miscible liquid pairs: the phenol and water and nicotine-water systems. Completely
miscible liquid pairs and their separation by fractional distillation. Freeze drying
(lyophilization).
its the ppt about phase rule which is the part of physical and inorganic chemistry in GTU. it explains how the phase rule is applicable in chemical eng.
Ekeeda Provides Online Engineering Subjects Video Lectures and Tutorials of Mumbai University (MU) Courses. Visit us: https://ekeeda.com/streamdetails/University/Mumbai-University
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
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This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
3. Some important terms …
Phase.
Components.
Degree of freedom.
Homogeneous system.
Heterogeneous system.
Phase rule.
Significance of phase rule.
Limitations of phase rule.
Phase diagram.
Eutectic system.
Eutectic point.
4. Phase (P):
• “A phase is defined as any homogeneous physically
distinct and mechanically separable portion of
heterogeneous system in equilibrium. “
• Examples:
• A gas mixture constituents a single phase (p = 1).
Since gases are completely miscible.
• Immiscible liquids constitute different phases. Thus
carbon tetra chloride (CCl4) is immiscible in water
(H2O).
• For this system p =2.
• Miscible liquids constitute a single phase. Thus
alcohol is immiscible in water (H2O).
• For this system p =1.
5. Components (C):
“The number of components of a system at equilibrium
is defined as the smallest number of independent
constituents by means of which composition of each
phase can be expressed directly (or) in terms of chemical
equation.”
For a system,
Number of components = (number of chemical species)
– (number of independent equations).
C = N –E
6. Examples:
KCl-NaBr-H2O system ; C=4
KCl + NaBr ⇌ NaCl + KBr
Number of chemical species , N =5(KCl,NaBr,H2O,NaCl,KBr)
Number of independent equations is E=1.
C = 5-1 = 4.
KCl-NaCl-H2O system ; C=3
Since there is no equation (E=0), N=3.
Ice ⇌ water ⇌ water vapor
H2O H2O H2O C=1.
7. Degrees of freedom (F):
The number of independent variables such as temperature,
pressure, concentration which must be specified in order to
define the system completely.”
If F = 0, then system is known as invariant system.
If F = 1, then system is known as uni variant (or) mono
variant system.
If F = 2, then system is known as bi variant (or) di variant
system.
If F = 3, then system is known as tri variant system.
8. Examples :
PV = nRT (for ideal gas)
P = RT/V (or) p = CRT
Here P, C, T‘s are intensive variables. If ‘P’and ‘T’are
fixed, then the volume (V) will have a definite value.
For a pure gas, F = 2
F = C – P + 2 = 1 – 1 + 2 = 2 (C = 1, p = 1),
Bi variant.
For a gaseous system consisting of two gases, F = 3.
F = 2 -1 + 2 = 3,
Tri variant.
9. Homogeneous system:
It is a system, which is uniform through out in physical
and chemical properties.
Ex: the solution of NaCl in water is homogeneous
system.
Heterogeneous system:
It is a system which consists of parts with different
physical & chemical properties.
Ex: the ice - water - water vapor system is a
heterogeneous system.
Because there are portions which physically distinct and
mechanically separable from one another.
10. Phase rule:A rule relating the possible no of phases,
constituents & degrees of freedom in a chemical
system.(F=C-P+2) by Gibbs.
• The phase rule at equilibrium is depend only on
• temperature,
• pressure and concentration variations
• and is not influenced by
• gravity,
• surface forces,
• electrical and magnetic forces,
• then the number of degrees of freedom (F) exceeds the
difference of number of components (C) and the
number of phases(P) by 2.
11. Significance of phase rule:
Phase rule is applicable both physical & chemical
equilibria.
Phase rule is applicable to microscopic systems.
We can conveniently classify equilibrium states in
terms of phases, components and degrees of freedom.
The behavior of system can be predicted under
different conditions.
According to phase rule, different systems behave
similarly if they have same degrees of freedom.
12. Limitations of phase rule:
• Phase rule is applicable only for those systems which are in
equilibrium.
• Only three degrees of freedom namely temperature, pressure
and composition are allowed to influence the equilibrium
systems.
• Under the same conditions of temperature and pressure all the
phases of the system must be present.
• It considers only the number of phases rather than their
amounts.
13. Phase diagrams:
When a system goes from one phase to another phase,
without change of chemical composition is known as
“phase Transition.”
Examples:
Melting (solid to liquid).
Boiling (liquid to gas).
Condensation (gas to liquid).
A diagram which illustrates the conditions of
equilibrium between various phases of a substance is
called a “phase diagram.”
14. Two component system:
In a system of two components, when p = 1
F = C – p + 2
= 2 -1 +2 =3
• This means that three variables must be specified in
order to describe the condition of the phase.
Ex: Ag – Pb system.
15. Eutectic system:
A binary system in which two components are miscible
in all proportions in the liquid state, but do not react
chemically and each component has the property of
lowering each others melting point is known as eutectic
(easy to melt)system.
A solid solution of a two component system which has
the lowest freezing point of all the possible mixture of the
component is known as “Eutectic mixture”.
And the minimum freezing point of the eutectic mixture is
known as “Eutectic point”.
17. Lead Silver (Pb-Ag) System:
L(327°C) is the melting point of Pb.
Addition of Ag lowers the melting point of Pb and LM
is the melting point curve of Pb in the presence silver.
Along LM, solid Pb and the melt are in equilibrium.
Point N(961°C) represents the melting point of Ag.
Its melting point is lowered by the addition of Pb along
the curve NM.
Hence NM is the melting point curve of Ag in the
presence of Pb.
Along NM solid silver is in equilibrium with the melt.
The system along LM or NM is monovariant.
The curves LM & NM intersects at M, where three
phases solid Pb, solid Ag & melt are in equilibrium.
18. Lead Silver (Pb-Ag) System:
The system is invariant and M represents the eutectic
point.(303°C, 2.6% Ag by mass)
20. KI-H20 System:
L(0°C) is the freezing point of water and is lowered by the
addition of salt(KI).
Hence after addition of salt(KI), LM is the freezing point of
water in the presence of KI.
Along LM ice separates out from the solution and system is
monovarient.
NM is the solubility curve of KI.
M Pt of KI cannot be realized in this phase diagram because it
has high M Pt as compared to critical temperature of H20.
From slope of the curve it reveals that the solubility of KI
increases with the rise in temperature.
At M where LM & NM meet, three phases(ice, solid KI &
solution) are in equilibrium, the system is invariant.
M is the eutectic point(-23°C, 52%KI by mass).
21. KI-H20 System:
In case of system involving salt & water, the eutectic
point is generally known as cryohydric point.
The temperature at M is the cryohydric temperature.
Solution of composition M is the cryohydric solution.
For such systems the lowest temperature that can be
attained is the cryohydric temperature and it is the
characteristic of each system.
23. Ferric Chloride Water(FeCl3-H2O) System:
In this system four congruently melting compounds are
formed which are,
• dodecahydrate(Fe2Cl6.12H2O)
• heptahydrate(Fe2Cl6.7H2O)
• pentahydrate (Fe2Cl6.5H2O)
• tetrahydrate(Fe2Cl6.4H2O).
The phase diagram consists of four maxima
corresponding to the formation of these hydrates.
Points N,P,R,T represents the congruent melting
points of dodeca,hepta,penta and tetra hydrates
respectively.
The congruent melting point of a salt hydrate is also
known as the dystectic point.
24. Ferric Chloride Water(FeCl3-H2O) System:
There are five cryohydric points at M,O,Q,S and U.
L is the melting point of ice.
Addition of Fe2Cl6 lowers the melting point along LM.
At the cryohydric point M the solution becomes
saturated w.r.t dodecahydrate and represents the
lowest temperature that can be attained with this
system.
Curves MNO,OPQ,QRS and STU represents the
solubilities of dodeca,hepta,penta and tetra
respectively while UV represents the solubility
characteristic of the anhydrous salt.
In the diagram the solubility of each hydrate increases
with the rise of temperature.
25. Ferric Chloride Water(FeCl3-H2O) System:
Now consider the phase changes that result when an
unsaturated solution represented by point k is
concentrated isothermally by adding anhydrous ferric
chloride along ku.
Firstly a saturated solution of dodecahydrate results at
l.
At m the whole mass solidifies to form dodecahydrate
which melts when more of ferric chloride is added.
Dodecahydrate disappears beyond n and between n
and o an unsaturated solution exists.
The solution becomes saturated with respect to
heptahydrate at o.
26. Ferric Chloride Water(FeCl3-H2O) System:
Further addition of ferric chloride increases the
amount of solid heptahydrate in the solution and at p
the whole solutions solidifies yielding heptahydrate.
The heptahydrate persists upto q.
Between q and r the solution remains unsaturated, at r
the pentahydrate begins to crystallize out.
At s solidification of whole mass into pentahydrate
occurs.
Between s and t a mixture of penta and tetrahydrate
exists which is completely converted into tetrahydrate
at t, beyond which tetrahydrate decomposes into
anhydrous ferric chloride and at u only the anhydrous
salt remains.