Nucleation
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Learn about the process of nucleation. - primary/secondary nucleation - homogeneous/heterogeneous nucleation - nucleation rate
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Nucleation & crystallization
The document discusses nucleation and crystallization processes. It explains that nucleation refers to the initial formation of nano-sized crystallites from molten material as the first step in solidification. The critical radius is the minimum size needed for a crystal embryo to become a stable nucleus and continue growing. Segregation occurs as solute elements are more soluble in liquid than solid, causing compositional variations within castings.
Crystal Defects
This document summarizes different types of defects in crystals. It classifies defects as zero-dimensional point defects, one-dimensional line defects, two-dimensional surface defects, or three-dimensional bulk defects. Point defects include vacancies, interstitials, Frenkel defects, and Schottky defects. Line defects include edge and screw dislocations. Surface defects include grain boundaries and twin boundaries. Bulk defects include precipitates, dispersants, inclusions, and voids. Defects can impact material properties and are sometimes deliberately introduced to improve properties.
Crystal growth techniques
This document discusses and compares two techniques for growing single crystal silicon: the Bridgman technique and the Czochralski (CZ) technique. It states that while the Bridgman technique is simpler, involving a quartz ampoule, boat, heater and temperature profile, crystals grown with this method contain many dislocations. The CZ technique is more complex but can produce higher quality crystals. It involves controlling a furnace, crystal pulling rate, ambient conditions and system. The document concludes that the CZ technique is preferable for growing single crystal silicon due to producing crystals with fewer defects.
Nucleation
THEORIES OF NUCLEATION , STEPS INVOLVED IN CRYSTALLIZATION, TYPES OF NUCLEATION, FACTORS AFFECTING NUCLEATION
Crystal Growth_Introduction
This document discusses various methods for crystal growth, including growing crystals from solution and vapor phase. It describes how crystallization occurs as atoms or molecules arrange in a repeating pattern. There are multiple techniques for obtaining crystals depending on the material, such as growing from molten solid, solution, or vapor phase. A common method is growing from solution, which involves precipitating crystals from a saturated solution by techniques like cooling or evaporation to reduce solubility in a controlled manner. Proper conditions like solvent choice, temperature control, and supersaturation levels are important for successful crystal growth.
Sputtering process
This document summarizes a seminar on sputtering processes. Sputtering is a thin film deposition technique where atoms are ejected from a target material when bombarded by energetic particles in vacuum. The ejected atoms then deposit onto a substrate to form a thin film. Key aspects of sputtering discussed include sputtering yield, how various parameters like ion mass, energy and pressure affect the process, and applications in microelectronics, decorative coatings, and medical devices.
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Nucleation & crystallization
The document discusses nucleation and crystallization processes. It explains that nucleation refers to the initial formation of nano-sized crystallites from molten material as the first step in solidification. The critical radius is the minimum size needed for a crystal embryo to become a stable nucleus and continue growing. Segregation occurs as solute elements are more soluble in liquid than solid, causing compositional variations within castings.
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This document summarizes different types of defects in crystals. It classifies defects as zero-dimensional point defects, one-dimensional line defects, two-dimensional surface defects, or three-dimensional bulk defects. Point defects include vacancies, interstitials, Frenkel defects, and Schottky defects. Line defects include edge and screw dislocations. Surface defects include grain boundaries and twin boundaries. Bulk defects include precipitates, dispersants, inclusions, and voids. Defects can impact material properties and are sometimes deliberately introduced to improve properties.
Crystal growth techniques
This document discusses and compares two techniques for growing single crystal silicon: the Bridgman technique and the Czochralski (CZ) technique. It states that while the Bridgman technique is simpler, involving a quartz ampoule, boat, heater and temperature profile, crystals grown with this method contain many dislocations. The CZ technique is more complex but can produce higher quality crystals. It involves controlling a furnace, crystal pulling rate, ambient conditions and system. The document concludes that the CZ technique is preferable for growing single crystal silicon due to producing crystals with fewer defects.
Nucleation
THEORIES OF NUCLEATION , STEPS INVOLVED IN CRYSTALLIZATION, TYPES OF NUCLEATION, FACTORS AFFECTING NUCLEATION
Crystal Growth_Introduction
This document discusses various methods for crystal growth, including growing crystals from solution and vapor phase. It describes how crystallization occurs as atoms or molecules arrange in a repeating pattern. There are multiple techniques for obtaining crystals depending on the material, such as growing from molten solid, solution, or vapor phase. A common method is growing from solution, which involves precipitating crystals from a saturated solution by techniques like cooling or evaporation to reduce solubility in a controlled manner. Proper conditions like solvent choice, temperature control, and supersaturation levels are important for successful crystal growth.
Sputtering process
This document summarizes a seminar on sputtering processes. Sputtering is a thin film deposition technique where atoms are ejected from a target material when bombarded by energetic particles in vacuum. The ejected atoms then deposit onto a substrate to form a thin film. Key aspects of sputtering discussed include sputtering yield, how various parameters like ion mass, energy and pressure affect the process, and applications in microelectronics, decorative coatings, and medical devices.
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Self assembled monolayers (SAMs) are organized layers of amphiphilic molecules that spontaneously form on substrates. SAMs consist of molecules with a "head group" that chemically binds to the substrate, and a "tail" with a functional group. Well-ordered SAMs form when alkanethiol molecules with chain lengths of 12 or more carbons chemisorb to gold surfaces from solution over time. Characterization techniques like infrared spectroscopy, ellipsometry, and contact angle measurements indicate high quality SAMs have densely packed, crystalline structures with few defects in the alkyl chains.
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This document discusses various types of defects that can occur in crystal structures, categorizing them based on dimensionality. Point defects are irregularities around a single atom and include vacancies, interstitials, Frenkel defects, and Schottky defects. Line defects distort atomic bonds around a dislocation line and include edge and screw dislocations. Surface defects occur at grain boundaries where crystal orientations change. Bulk defects in the volume of the material include precipitates, dispersants, inclusions, and voids. Defects can impact material properties and are sometimes deliberately introduced to improve characteristics.
15 crystallization
This document provides an overview of crystallization as a separation and purification technique. It discusses key concepts such as crystallization, nucleation, crystal growth, and factors that affect crystallization. Specifically, it describes three steps of crystallization from solution: induction of supersaturation through methods like cooling, solvent evaporation, or adiabatic evaporation; nucleation through Miers' theory; and crystal growth which depends on concentration, temperature, and velocity gradients. It also discusses methods of controlling crystal size and factors that influence the crystallization process like temperature, impurities, and agitation.
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Subject: 0.1 Instructions for the distillation section
0.1 Instructions
Slides for the eLearning course Separation and purification processes in biorefineries (https://open-learn.xamk.fi) in IMPRESS project (https://www.spire2030.eu/impress).
Section: Mass transfer
Subject: 0.2 Instructions for the Mass transfer section
2.4 Plate efficiencies
Slides for the eLearning course Separation and purification processes in biorefineries (https://open-learn.xamk.fi) in IMPRESS project (https://www.spire2030.eu/impress).
Subject: 2.4 Plate efficiencies.
2.3 Enthalpy balances
This document discusses enthalpy balances in distillation. It defines enthalpy and provides enthalpy-concentration diagrams. Equations for total and individual enthalpy balances are presented for the rectifying and stripping sections. The document describes how to solve the equations using an iterative approach with enthalpy data. It also discusses how to calculate the feed enthalpy parameter q using enthalpy values. An example problem calculates q for a benzene-toluene mixture.
2.2 McCabe-Thiele method
The McCabe-Thiele method is a graphical technique for determining the minimum number of stages required for distillation. It involves plotting the equilibrium relationship between liquid and vapor phases on a diagram and constructing operating lines to represent the mass balances in the rectifying and stripping sections. Intersections between the lines indicate the number of ideal stages. The method was developed in 1925 and remains useful for preliminary column design. Key considerations include the feed composition and enthalpy, reflux ratio, and use of partial condensers or reboilers.
2.1 Material balances
Slides for the eLearning course Separation and purification processes in biorefineries (https://open-learn.xamk.fi) in IMPRESS project (https://www.spire2030.eu/impress).
Section: Distillation
Subject: 2.1 Material balances
1.3 Fractionating column
Slides for the eLearning course Separation and purification processes in biorefineries (https://open-learn.xamk.fi) in IMPRESS project (https://www.spire2030.eu/impress).
Section: Distillation
Subject: 0.2 Introduction to distillation.
1.2 Flash distillation
Slides for the eLearning course Separation and purification processes in biorefineries (https://open-learn.xamk.fi) in IMPRESS project (https://www.spire2030.eu/impress).
Section: Distillation
Subject: 1.2 Flash distillation.
1.1 Vapor Liquid Equilibrium
Slides for the eLearning course Separation and purification processes in biorefineries (https://open-learn.xamk.fi) in IMPRESS project.
Section: Distillation
Subject: 1.1 Vapor Liquid Equilibrium
0.3 Basic concepts of distillation
Slides for the eLearning course Separation and purification processes in biorefineries (https://open-learn.xamk.fi) in IMPRESS project.
Section: Distillation
Subject: 0.3 Basic concepts of distillation
0.2 Introduction to Distillation
Slides for the eLearning course Separation and purification processes in biorefineries (https://open-learn.xamk.fi) in IMPRESS project.
Subject: Distillation
Subject: 0.2 Introduction to distillation.
Engineering economics and finance
Slides for the eLearning course Separation and purification processes in biorefineries (https://open-learn.xamk.fi) in IMPRESS project (https://www.spire2030.eu/impress).
Section: Mass transfer processes
Subject: 3.4 Economics and finance
Safety issues in chemical engineering
Slides for the eLearning course Separation and purification processes in biorefineries (https://open-learn.xamk.fi) in IMPRESS project (https://www.spire2030.eu/impress).
Section: Mass transfer processes
Subject: 3.3 Safety issues
Convective mass transfer
This document discusses convective mass transfer and mass transfer coefficients. It defines convective mass transfer as the rapid transfer of mass that occurs when there is motion in the transfer medium compared to the slower process of molecular diffusion. Mass transfer coefficients are introduced to simplify calculations of mass transfer rates. Different types of mass transfer coefficients are presented based on whether they are used for gases or liquids, and whether they are expressed in terms of concentrations, mole fractions, or partial pressures. Approximations for typical values of mass transfer coefficients in gas and liquid phases are provided.
Mass transfer equipment
This document discusses various types of equipment used for mass transfer operations in industry. It describes plate columns and packed columns as the two most widely used for distillation, gas absorption, and stripping. Plate columns are also known as tray columns, where the column is divided into stages by trays. The main types of trays are sieve, bubble-cap, and valve trays. Packed columns can use random, structured, or grid packings. Other equipment discussed include bubble columns, spray columns, and agitated vessels. Selection of mass transfer equipment depends on the process conditions and economics.
Design principles in mass transfer processes
Slides for the eLearning course Separation and purification processes in biorefineries (https://open-learn.xamk.fi) in IMPRESS project (https://www.spire2030.eu/impress).
Section: Mass transfer processes
Subject: 3.1 Design principles
Interphase mass transfer
Slides for the eLearning course Separation and purification processes in biorefineries (https://open-learn.xamk.fi) in IMPRESS project (https://www.spire2030.eu/impress).
Section: Mass transfer processes
Subject: 2.4 Interphase mass transfer
Molecular diffusion
Slides for the eLearning course Separation and purification processes in biorefineries (https://open-learn.xamk.fi) in IMPRESS project (https://www.spire2030.eu/impress).
Section: Mass transfer processes
Subject: 2.2 Molecular diffusion
Overview of mass transfer mechanisms
Slides for the eLearning course Separation and purification processes in biorefineries (https://open-learn.xamk.fi) in IMPRESS project (https://www.spire2030.eu/impress).
Section: Mass transfer processes
Subject: 2.1 Overview
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Nucleation
- 1. This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 869993. Nucleation
- 2. Crystallization process • Crystallization process includes two steps: • nucleation • crystal growth. • In supersaturated solution, constituent particles gather together in clusters. When they reach the critical cluster size, they become stable nuclei. • This process is called nucleation. Nuclei are like little baby crystals. Picture: Kati Jordan CC0
- 3. Formation of nuclei • The formation of nuclei is a difficult process to envisage. • Adequate amount of constituent particles (atoms, ions or molecules) have to be attached into a fixed lattice to form a stable nucleus. For example, a stable ice nucleus contains about 100 molecules. • An unstable nuclei may either grow or redissolve. The minimum size of a stable nucleus is called its critical size. • Nucleation requires a supersaturated solution. It is not at equilibrium. The solution crystallizes to achieve equilibrium.
- 4. Nucleation • The region, where the solution is only slightly supersaturated, is called metastable zone. In metastable zone nucleation is not spontaneous. Some seeds are needed. • The rate of nucleation increases with the level of supersaturation. Above the metastable zone, nucleation becomes spontaneous. • The width of the metastable zone is dependent on a number of conditions, e.g. the rate of cooling. The crystal growth occur in the metastable zone. Picture: Kati Jordan CC0
- 5. Nucleation • Nucleation can be divided into primary and secondary nucleation. • In secondary nucleation, the formation of nuclei is induced by the existing crystals. It is the main method in industrial crystallizers. • In primary nucleation, no crystals are involved. If the nucleation is caused by some foreign particles (e.g. dust), process is called heterogeneous nucleation. • If nucleation occurs spontaneously, it is called homogeneous nucleation. It is not possible in industrial crystallizers because of the presence of impurities and low levels of supersaturation. Picture: Kati Jordan CC0
- 6. Nucleation rate • Nucleation rate effects on crystal size distribution and crystal habit. • It depends on the level of supersaturation and the seed surface area. • The rate increases with increasing supersaturation. • The nucleation rate is usually given in units of the number of nuclei formed / (m³ · s). • It can also be determined as an induction time. • Induction time is a time interval between the creation of supersaturation and the appearance of crystals. It can range from micro seconds to days.
- 7. This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 869993. References • Beckmann & Beckmann, W. 2013. Crystallization: Basic Concepts and Industrial Applications. Weinheim: Wiley‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, pp. 17-25. • McCabe, W. L., Smith, J. C. & Harriott, P. 2005. Unit operations of chemical engineering. 7th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill, pp. 936-945. • Mullin, J. W. & W Mullin, J. 2001. Crystallization. Butterworth-Heinemann, pp. 181-215. • Myerson, Myerson, A. S. & Myerson, A. 2002. Handbook of Industrial Crystallization. Butterworth-Heinemann, pp. 43-53. Videos: • Dive deeper into the process of nucleation: https://youtu.be/Jbb6QDiE9dI • Learn about the classical nucleation theory: https://youtu.be/cpPjN9x9NNE