The document summarizes the process of beta-oxidation of fatty acids. It occurs in the mitochondrial matrix in four steps - oxidation, hydration, oxidation, and cleavage - resulting in the sequential removal of two-carbon acetyl-CoA units. Fatty acids are first activated to acyl-CoAs in the cytosol then transported into the mitochondria by the carnitine shuttle system to undergo beta-oxidation, generating acetyl-CoA, NADH, and FADH2. Defects in this process can cause various metabolic disorders like fatty acid oxidation disorders.

1. Gandham.Rajeev
Email:gandhamrajeev33@gmail.com

2.  Beta-Oxidation may be defined as the
oxidation of fatty acids on the β-carbon atom.
 This results in the sequential removal of a two
carbon fragment, acetyl CoA.

3.  Three stages
 Activation of fatty acids - in the cytosol
 Transport of fatty acids into mitochondria
 Beta-Oxidation proper in the mitochondrial
matrix
 Fatty acids are oxidized by most of the
tissues in the body.
 Brain, erythrocytes & adrenal medulla cannot
utilize fatty acids for energy requirement.

4.  Fatty acid activation taking place in cytoplasm.
 Fatty acids are activated to acyl CoA by
thiokinases or acyl CoA synthetases.
 The reaction occurs in two steps & requires
ATP, coenzyme A and Mg2+
 Fatty acid reacts with ATP to form
acyladenylate which then combines with
coenzyme A to produce acyl CoA.

5.  Two high energy phosphates are utilized,
since ATP is converted to pyrophosphate (PPi).
 The enzyme inorganic pyrophosphatase
hydrolyses PPi to phosphate.
 The immediate elimination of PPi makes this
reaction totally irreversible.

6.  Three different enzymes, one each for short
chain, medium chain & long chain fatty acids.
 Small chain fatty acids may also be activated
by thiophorase enzyme, using succinyl CoA.

7. R-CH2-CH2-COO-
Fatty Acid
R-CH2-CH2-C-AMP
Acyladenylate
R-CH2-CH2-C-CoA
Acyl CoA
O
O
ATP
PPi
Thiokinase
2Pi
Pyrophosphatase
CoASH
AMP

8.  The inner mitochondrial membrane is
impermeable to fatty acids.
 A specialized carnitine carrier system (carnitine
shuttle) operates to transport activated fatty
acids from cytosol to the mitochondria.
 Carnitine is β-hydroxy γ-trimethyl
aminobutyrate, synthesized by lysine &
methionine in liver & kidney.

9. o It occur in four stages.
1. Acyl group of acyl CoA is transferred to
carnitine catalyzed by carnitine
acyltransferase I (CAT-I) (present on the outer
surface of inner mitochondrial membrane).
2. The acyl-carnitine is transported across the
membrane to mitochondrial matrix by a
specific carrier protein (Translocase).

10. 3. Carnitine acyltransferase ll (CAT-II) (found on
the inner surface of inner mitochondrial
membrane) converts acyl-carnitine to acyl
CoA.
4. The carnitine released returns to cytosol for
reuse by translocase.

11. Carrier
Protein
Acyl CoA
Carnitine
CoASH
Acyl
Carnitine
Acyl
Carnitine
Carnitine
CoASH
Acyl CoA
CAT-I CAT-II
Cytosol Mitochondrial Matrix
Inner
Mitochondrial
membrane

12.  Each cycle of β –oxidation, liberating a two
carbon unit-acetyl CoA, occurs in a sequence
of four reactions
1. Oxidation
2. Hydration
3. Oxidation
4. Cleavage

13.  Acyl CoA undergoes dehydrogenation by an
FAD-dependent flavoenzyme, acyl CoA
dehydrogenase.
 A double bond is formed between α & β carbons
(i.e., 2 & 3 carbons)
2. Hydration:
 Enoyl CoA hydratase brings about the hydration
of the double bond to form β -hydroxyacyl CoA.

14. 3. Oxidation
 β-Hydroxyacyl CoA dehydrogenase
catalyses the second oxidation & generates NADH.
 The product formed is β-ketoacyl CoA.
4. Cleavage
 The final reaction in β -oxidation is the liberation of
a 2 carbon fragment, acetyl CoA from acyl CoA.
 This occurs by a thiolytic cleavage catalysed by β-
ketoacyl CoA thiolase (or thiolase).

15.  The new acyl CoA, containing two carbons
less than the original, reenters the β-
oxidation cycle.
 The process continues till the fatty acid is
completely oxidized.

16. R – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – C – O-
Fatty acid
O
R – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – C –
Acyl CoA
O
Thiokinase
ATP
ADP + PPi
Mg+2
SCoA
Carnitine Transport system
Cytosol
Mitochondria
CoASH
β-Oxidation of fatty acids

17. R – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – C – SCoA
Acyl CoA
O
FAD
FADH22ATP ----- ETC
Acyl CoA
Dehydrogenase
R – CH2 – CH2 CH2 – C – SCoA
Trans-enoyl CoA
O
R – CH2 – CH – CH2 – C – SCoA
β - Hydroxyacyl CoA
OOH
Enoyl CoA
Hydratase
H2O
SIDS
OH

18. R – CH2 – CH – CH2 – C – SCoA
β - Hydroxyacyl CoA
OOH
NAD+
NADH + H+3ATP ----- ETC
β-Hydroxy Acyl CoA
Dehydrogenase
R – CH2 – C – CH2 – C – SCoA
β - Ketoacyl CoA
OO
Thiolase
R – CH2 – C – SCoA
Acyl CoA
O
CH3 – C – SCoA
Acetyl CoA
O
TCA
Cycle
Acyl CoA
CoASH

19.  Palmitoyl CoA + 7 CoASH + 7 FAD +
7 NAD+ + 7 H2O 8 Acetyl CoA + 7
FADH2 +7 NADH + 7H+
 Palmitoyl CoA undergoes 7 cycles of β -
oxidation to yield 8 acetyl CoA.
 Acetyl CoA can enter citric acid cycle & get
completely oxidized to CO2 & H2O.

20. Mechanism ATP yield
I. β- 0xidation 7 cycles
7 FADH2 [Oxidized by Electron Transport Chain (ETC) each
FADH2 gives 2 ATP ]
7 NADH (Oxidized by ETC, each NADH
Liberate 3ATP)
14
21
II. From 8 Acetyl CoA
Oxidized by citric acid cycle, each acetyl CoA
provides 12 ATP
96
Total energy from one molecule of palmitoyl CoA
Energy utilized for activation
(Formation of palmitoyl Co A)
131
-2
Net yield of oxidation of one molecule of palmitate =129

21.  The availability of free fatty acid (FFA)
regulates the net utilisation through β-
oxidation.
 The level of FFA is controlled by
glucagon:insulin ratio.
 Glucagon increases FFA level & insulin has
the opposite effect.

22.  CAT-I is the regulator of entry of fatty acid
into mitochondria.
 Malonyl CoA inhibits CAT-I activity.
 Thus during de novo synthesis of fatty acid,
the beta oxidation is inhibited.

23.  Unexpected death of healthy infants, usually
overnight
 Due to deficiency of medium chain acyl CoA
dehydrogenase.
 Glucose is the principal source of energy, soon
after eating or feeding babies.

24.  After a few hours, the glucose level & its
utilization decrease & the rate of fatty acid
oxidation must simultaneously increase to
meet the energy needs.
 The sudden death in infants is due to a
blockade in β -oxidation caused by a
deficiency in medium chain acyl CoA
dehydrogenase (MCAD)

25.  Characterized by severe hypoglycemia,
vomiting, convulsions, coma & death.
 lt is caused by eating unriped ackee fruit-
contains an unusual toxic amino acid,
hypoglycin A.
 This inhibits the enzyme acyl CoA
dehydrogenase & β -oxidation of fatty acids is
blocked, leading to various complications

26.  Abnormalities in transport of fatty acids into
mitochondria & defects in oxidation leads to
deficient energy production by oxidation of long
chain fatty acids.
 Features:
 Hypoglycemia, hyperammonemia, weakness &
liver diseases.
 Acyl carnitine accumulates when the transferases
or translocase is deficient.
 Dietary supplementation of carnitine improve the
condition.

27.  Oxidation of odd chain fatty acids is similar
to that of even chain fatty acids.
 At the end 3 carbon unit, propionyl CoA is
produced.
 Propionyl CoA is converted into succinyl CoA.
 Succinyl CoA is an intermediate in TCA cycle
 Propionyl CoA is gluconeogenic.

28.  Propionyl CoA is carboxylated to D-methyl
malonyl CoA by a biotin dependent
carboxylase.
 Biotin & ATP is utilized in this step.
 Methylmelonyl CoA Recemase:
 Recemase acts upon D-methyl malonyl CoA to
give L-methyl malonyl CoA.
 This reaction is essential for the entry of this
compound into metabolic reactions of body.

29.  Methylmalonyl CoA Mutase:
 Mutase catalyzes the conversion of L-methyl
malonyl CoA (a branched chain compound) to
succinyl CoA (a straight chain compound).
 Mutase is an vitamin B12 dependent enzyme.
 Succinyl CoA enters the TCA cycle, & converted
into oxaloacetate, it is used for
gluconeogenesis.
 Propionyl CoA is also derived from
metabolism of valine & isoleucine.

30. CH3
I
CH2
I
CO-S-CoA
Propionyl CoA
CH3
I
H - C- COO-
I
CO-S-CoA
D-methyl malonyl CoA
CH3
I
-OOC – C - H
I
CO-S-CoA
L - methyl malonyl CoA
COO-
I
CH2
I
CH2
I
CO-S-CoA
Succinyl CoA
Propionyl CoA
carboxylase
ATP ADP + Pi
CO2
Methylmalonyl
CoA recemase
Methylmalonyl
CoA mutase
Vitamin B12
TCA
Biotin

31.  Propionyl CoA carboxylase deficiency:
 Characterized by propionic acidemia,
ketoacidosis & developmental abnormalities.
 Methyl malonic aciduria:
 Two types of methyl malonic acidemias
 Due to deficiency of vitamin B12
 Due to defect in the enzyme methyl malonyl
CoA mutase or recemase.

32.  Accumulation of methyl malonic acid in body.
 Methyl malonic acid is excreted into urine.
 Symptoms:
 Severe metabolic acidosis, damages the
central nervous system & growth retardation.
 Fatal in early years of life.
 Treatment:
 Some patients respond to treatment with
pharmacological doses of B12.

33.  Oxidation of fatty acids on α-carbon atom is
known as α-oxidation.
 In this, removal of one carbon unit from the
carboxyl end.
 Energy is not produced.
 No need of fatty acid activation & coenzyme A
 Hydroxylation occurs at α-carbon atom.

34.  It is then oxidized to α-keto acid.
 This, keto acid undergoes decarboxylation,
yielding a molecule of CO2 & FA with one
carbon atom less.
 Occurs in endoplasmic reticulum.
 Some FA undergo α - oxidation in
peroxisomes.

35.  α- oxidation is mainly used for fatty acids
that have a methyl group at the beta-carbon,
which blocks beta- oxidation.
 Major dietary methylated fatty acid is
phytanic acid.
 It is derived from phytol present in
chlorophyll, milk & animal fats.

36.  Due to deficiency of the enzyme α-
hydroxylase (phytanic acid oxidase)
 α – oxidation does not occur.
 Phytanic acid does not converted into
compound that can be degraded by beta –
oxidation.
 Phytanic acid accumulates in tissues.

37.  Severe neurological symptoms,
polyneuropathy, retinitis pigmentosa, nerve
deafness & cerebellar ataxia.
 Restricted dietary intake of phytanic acid
(including milk-is a good source of phytanic
acid)

38.  Minor pathway, takes place in microsomes.
 Catalyzed by hydroxylase enzymes involving
NADPH & cytochrome P-450.
 Methyl (CH3) group is hydroxylated to CH2OH &
subsequently oxidized with the help of NAD+ to
COOH group to produce dicarboxylic acids.
 When β-oxidation is defective & dicarboxylic acids
are excreted in urine causing dicarboxylic aciduria.

39.  It is a rare disorder.
 It is characterized by absence of
peroxisomes in almost all the tissues.
 Long chain fatty acids are not oxidized.
 Long chain fatty acids are accumulated in
tissues-mainly brain, liver & kidney.
 It also known as cerebrohepatorenal
syndrome.

40.  Textbook of Biochemistry-U Satyanarayana
 Textbook of Biochemistry-DM Vasudevan