Fatty acid metabolism is a complex multi-step process that occurs in different cellular locations. Triglycerides are first hydrolyzed by lipases to release fatty acids. The fatty acids are then bound to coenzyme A and transported into the mitochondrial matrix using carnitine. Inside the mitochondria, the fatty acids undergo beta-oxidation where they are broken down in a cycle of reactions that cleave two carbon units at a time, producing acetyl-CoA. If fatty acid breakdown outpaces the citric acid cycle, ketone bodies like acetoacetate can be produced from acetyl-CoA. Acetoacetate is an important energy source for tissues like the heart and kidney.
This file include these contents:
What is Triacylglycerol
Structure of triacylglycerol
Simple triacylglycerol
Mixed triacylglycerol
Biosynthesis of triacylglycerol
Utilization of triacylglycerol
Properties of triacylglycerol
This file include these contents:
What is Triacylglycerol
Structure of triacylglycerol
Simple triacylglycerol
Mixed triacylglycerol
Biosynthesis of triacylglycerol
Utilization of triacylglycerol
Properties of triacylglycerol
Inborn errors of amino acid metabolismRamesh Gupta
Inherited disorders of amino acid metabolism e.g. phenylketonuria, maple syrup urine disease, alkaptonuria, homocystinuria, Hartnup disease etc for medical, biochemistry and biology undergraduates
Inborn errors of amino acid metabolismRamesh Gupta
Inherited disorders of amino acid metabolism e.g. phenylketonuria, maple syrup urine disease, alkaptonuria, homocystinuria, Hartnup disease etc for medical, biochemistry and biology undergraduates
Anaerobic power is a physiological factor dominating 2000 m rowing race during the start and the finish. Anaerobic capacity relies on carbohydrate availability, therefore lower glycolytic capacities may be of negative effect at the start acceleration and the final spurt in the rowing race.
MEMORIAS TRABAJOS LIBRES
Conferencia Científica Anual sobre Síndrome Metabólico 2015
Efecto comparativo de cuatro modelos de dieta con diferente cantidad y tipo de grasa sobre la disfunción del tejido adiposo en pacientes con síndrome metabólico en estado postprandial
PhD María Eugenia Meneses*, PhD Antonio Camargo-García*, PhD Cristina Cruz-Teno*, PhD Yolanda Jiménez-Gómez**, PhD Pablo Pérez-Martínez*, PhD Javier Delgado-Lista*, PhD María del Mar Malagón-Poyato**, PhD Francisco Pérez-Jiménez*, PhD Helen Roche***, PhD José López-Miranda*
* Unidad de Lípidos y Arteriosclerosis, Servicio de Medicina Interna, IMIBIC/Hospital Universitario Reina Sofía/Universidad de Córdoba, Córdoba, España y CIBER Fisiopatología Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBEROBN), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, ** Departamento de Biología Celular, Fisiología e Inmunología. IMIBIC, (CIBEROBN).Universidad de Córdoba, España, *** Nutrigenomics Research Group, UCD Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, University College Dublin, Republic of Ireland
Our designer Ian Black introduced us to Sow & Grow, a web app for folks looking to grow their own vegetables and have no idea where to start.
He shares his journey on trying to grow vegetables whilst learning javascript.
Recent lecture (june 2011)
Nutrigenomics of FAT: What is “good” or “bad” for human health?
Less healthy: Dietary fats rich in long chain saturated fatty acids that can be pro-inflammatory if chronically “overconsumed”
More favorable: Unsaturated fatty acids (in particular PUFAs from fish oil) have anti-inflammatory properties
A healthy adipose tissue is essential to efficiently store fat and prevent ectopic fat deposition
Healthy : Subcutanous fat > visceral fat > ectopic fat : Unhealthy
Future challenge: To prevent the unhealthy effects of a surplus of added sugars (sucrose, fructose) & high GI carbs
Will be converted into saturated fat
Linked to ectopic fat deposition e.g. NASH
Linked to obesity, diabetes, CVD….
Childhood obesity
This ppt has been presented as seminar in Department of Biochemistry ,C.C.S. university, Meerut.in front of all faculty members for the detailed discussion on this topic. Hope this will help you to go through the concept in an easy manner.
Lipid metabolism is the synthesis and degradation of lipids in cells, involving the breakdown and storage of fats for energy and the synthesis of structural and functional lipids, such as those involved in the construction of cell membranes. In animals, these fats are obtained from food and are synthesized by the liver. Lipogenesis is the process of synthesizing these fats. The majority of lipids found in the human body from ingesting food are triglycerides and cholesterol.[4] Other types of lipids found in the body are fatty acids and membrane lipids. Lipid metabolism is often considered as the digestion and absorption process of dietary fat; however, there are two sources of fats that organisms can use to obtain energy: from consumed dietary fats and from stored fat.[5] Vertebrates (including humans) use both sources of fat to produce energy for organs such as the heart to function. Since lipids are hydrophobic molecules, they need to be solubilized before their metabolism can begin. Lipid metabolism often begins with hydrolysis, which occurs with the help of various enzymes in the digestive system.Lipid metabolism also occurs in plants, though the processes differ in some ways when compared to animals.[8] The second step after the hydrolysis is the absorption of the fatty acids into the epithelial cells of the intestinal wall.[6] In the epithelial cells, fatty acids are packaged and transported to the rest of the body.[9]
Metabolic processes include lipid digestion, lipid absorption, lipid transportation, lipid storage, lipid catabolism, and lipid biosynthesis. Lipid catabolism is accomplished by a process known as beta oxidation which takes place in the mitochondria and peroxisome cell organelles.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
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The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
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This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
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Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
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Fatty acid metabolism
1. FATTY ACID METABOLISM
Because the breakdown of fats is a complicated process, this part is divided in a number of
different parts. Below the different parts are indicated.
Triglycerides are hydrolysed by cyclical AMP-regulated lipases
Fatty acids are bound to coenzyme A before they are oxidised
Carnitine transports long-chain activated fatty acids the mitochondrial matrix in
Fatty acids are broken by splitting-off of always two carbon atoms
oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids yet an isomerase and a reductase are necessary
If the fat breakdown dominates acetyl CoA keton bodies are formed
Acetylacetate is an important fuel in some tissues
2. Triglycerides are hydrolysed by cyclical AMP-regulated lipases
The first event in the use of fat as energy source is the hydrolysis (= break down by water) of
triglycerides by the enzymes that are called lipases. This process is also called lipolyse.
Lipases convert triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids. The hydrolyse by lipases of
triglycerol in glycerol and fatty acids.
The activity of lipase in fat cells is regulated by hormones like epinephrine and glucagon.
These hormones activate the enzyme adenylate cyclase. This enzyme converts ATP in cyclical
AMP. This cyclical AMP activates the enzyme protein kinase A (PKA). The
enzyme PKAphosphorylyse the lipase enzyme and gets activated because of this
phosphorylation. Like in thebreak down of glycogen cyclical AMP is here "the second
messenger". The hormone insulin inhibits the hydrolysis of triglycerids.
Glycerol, that by the break down of triglyceride arise, is phosphorylated by glycerolkinase and is
then oxidised by glycerol phosphate dehydrogenase to dihydroxyacetone phosphate. This is an
intermediary of the glycolysis and will be broken down further in this glycolysis
.
3. Fatty acids are bound to coenzyme A before they are oxidised
A fatty acid reacts with ATP and coenzyme A to acyl CoA, AMP and pyrophosphate.
A fatty acid reacts with ATP and coenzyme A to form acyl CoA, AMP and
pyrophosphate. This reaction is catalysed by acyl CoA synthetase.
The enzyme acyl CoA synthetase has been bound at the outer membrane of the
mitochondria. The balance of the total reaction lies in the direction of acyl CoA
because of the fast hydrolysis of pyrophosphate
Carnitine transports long-chain activated fatty acids the mitochondrial
matrix in
Fatty acids are activated at the outer membrane of the mitochondria, but are oxidised inside the
mitochondria. Because long-chains fatty acids are not easily going through the outer membrane
of the mitochondria a special transport mechanism is necessary to transport these fatty acids into
the mitochondria.
Activated long-chain fatty acids are combined with carnitine. The acyl group is transferred by
the sulphur atom of coenzyme A on the hydroxyl group of carnitine under formation of
acylcarnitine. This reaction is catalysed by carnitine acyltransferase I, that is bound at the outer
membrane of the mitochondria. Activated long-chain fatty acids are combined with carnitine.
4. Acylcarnitine is then moved through the outer membrane by a translocase enzyme (membrane
protein). The acyl group is transferred back to coenzyme A at the matrix side (in the
mitochondria) by the membrane. This reaction is catalysed by carnitine acyltransferase
II. Ultimately carnitine is transported back into the cytoplasm by the enzyme translocase in
exchange for a coming in of acylcarnitine
5. Fatty acids are broken by splitting-off of always two carbon atoms
Fatty acids are broken down by repetitions of separations of parts of two carbon atoms. The reactions
that repeat are oxidation, hydration, oxidation (dehydrogenation) and thiolyse.
The three reactions from acyl CoA to 3-ketoacyl CoA are comparable to the reactions of Succinate to
Oxalacetate in the citric acid cycle.
The break down of fatty acids with a chain of an odd number of carbon atoms leads to the formation
of propionyl CoA in the last thiolyse reaction step. In the last reaction step of the fatty acid break
down 3-ketopentanoyl CoA (5 carbon atoms) is split up in propionyl CoA (3 carbon atoms) and
acetyl CoA (2 carbon atoms). Propionyl CoA is converted in methylmalonyl-CoA by the enzyme
propionyl-CoA carboxylase. This enzyme needs biotin as an assistant-factor (and bicarbonate and
ATP) to catalyse the reaction. Methylmalonyl-CoA is converted in succinyl-CoA by the enzyme
6. methylmalonyl-CoA mutase. This enzyme needs coenzyme B12 (a product ofvitamin B12) to
catalyse this reaction. Succinyl CoA can be further broken down in the citric acid cycle.
oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids yet an isomerase and a reductase
are necessary
The first reaction in the cycle of the break down ( -Oxidation) of a fatty acid under formation of
an enoyl CoA with a trans double bond between carbon number 2 is the oxidation of an acyl
CoA and 3.By the break down of an unsaturated fatty acid, the presence of a double bond
between C-3 and C-4 prevents the formation of a trans double bond between C-2 and C-3. A
trans double bond is necessary for the formation of L-3-hydroxyacyl CoA, because the enzyme
dehydrogenase is specific for this. An isomerase changes a double bond between C-3 and C-4
into a trans double bond between C-2 and C-3. By the break down of a plural unsaturated fatty
acid, a cis- 4 double bond forms another problem. Through dehydrogenation of this part, a 2,4-
dienoyl intermediate product is raised, that is no substratum for the following enzyme in the -
Oxidation. This problem is solved by the enzyme 2,4-dienoyl CoA reductase that with NADPH
3
as coenzyme reduces the intermediate product to a cis- -Enoyl CoA. The earlier called
3
isomerase converts cis- -Enoyl CoA in the trans form, see the figure below.
7. If the fat breakdown dominates acetyl CoA keton bodies are formed
All by the fatty acid break down formed active acetyl CoA can only be sufficient fast broken
down in the citric acid cycle when sufficient oxalacetate is present. By fasting or by diabetes
oxalacetate is used for the gluconeogenesis. Then there is insufficient oxalacetate available to
react with acetyl CoA.
Under these circumstances, from two molecules acetyl CoA one molecule acetoacetyl CoA is
formed and from that the keton bodies are formed: acetylacetate (diacete), D-3-hydroxybutyrate
and acetone.
8. Acetylacetate is an important fuel in some tissues
The keton bodies appear to be important energy sources, it is the primary fuels for the heart
muscle and the kidney salt marsh. By fasting or diabetes the brains change from the use of
glucose to the use of acetylacetate as fuel.
Acetylacetate is activated by the transfer of the CoA of succinyl CoA to acetylacetate.
Acetoacetyl CoA is then thiolysed to two molecules acetyl CoA that go into the citric acid
cycle.
9. The use of acetoacetate as a fuel. Acetoacetate is converted in 2 molecules acetyl CoA what the citric acid cycle
can enter.
The liver can supply acetylacetate (not thiolysed) to other organs because the liver itself has
not the enzyme CoA transferase. Other tissues do have this enzyme.
Acetylacetate has a regulating role. High concentrations in the blood are a signal for an
excess of acetyl-units and lead to a delayed lipolyse (fat breakdown) in fat tissue (negative
feedback). Humans and animals cannot convert fatty acids into glucose. Humans and animals
can not convert fatty acids into glucose because they cannot use the acetyl CoA to make
pyruvate or oxalacetate. The both carbon atoms are taken up in the citric acid cycle, but is
formed by two decarboxylations per balance no extra oxalacetate (no gluconeogenesis).
Plants can do that with help of the glyoxylate cycle.
10. Characteristic differences between the break down and synthesis of fatty
acids.
Break down of fatty Structure of fatty
acids acids
In which part of the cell mitochondria Cytoplasm
Bond of intermediate acyl transport protein
coenzyme A
products on ACP
enzymes in one protein
Enzyme system separate enzymes
chain
separation of C2 (acetyl addition of C2
Change of the chain length
CoA) donor: malonyl ACP
Oxidizers: FAD and
Redox Reducers: NADPH
NAD +