Air environemnt i d mall

AAIIRR EENNVVIIRROONNEEMMNNTT
DDRR.. II..DD.. MMAALLLL
DDeeppaarrttmmeenntt ooff CChheemmiiccaall EEnngggg..
IInnddiiaann IInnssttiittuuttee ooff TTeecchhnnoollooggyy,, RRoooorrkkeeee
RRoooorrkkeeee-- 224477666677

22
AIR IS LIFE.
LIFE STARTS WITH
AIR AND ENDS
WITH AIR.

44
The Five BBaassiicc PPhhyyssiiccaall EElleemmeennttss
 From the Vedic times, around 3000 B.C. to 1000 B.C., Indians
(Indo-Aryans) had classified the material world into four
elements viz. Earth (Prithvi), fire (Agni), air (Maya) and water
(Apa). To these four elements was added a fifth one viz. ether
or Akasha. According to some scholars these five elements or
Pancha Mahabhootas were identified with the various human
senses of perception; earth with smell, air with feeling, fire
with vision, water with taste and ether with sound. Whatever
the validity behind this interpretation, it is true that since very
ancient times Indians had perceived the material world as
comprising these 5 elements. The Buddhist philosophers who
came later, rejected ether as an element and replaced it with
life, joy and sorrow.

55
Fast growing unplanned and indiscriminate
urbanization: Cause of recent ecological
imbalances
MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CRISIS WHICH MANKIND IS
FACING DUE TO URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL
DEVELOPMENT ARE:
 Large scale contamination of water and air.
 Deforestation
 Increase in urban slums
 Generation of huge solid waste consisting of hazardous material.
 Water scarcity and ground water depletion.
 Global warming
 Greenhouse effect
 Ozone layer depletion

66
AIR POLLUTION
 Atmosphere has gone significant changes in the last Two billion years
 From the fourteenth century until recently the primary air pollutants
have been coal smoke and gases released in industrialised areas.
 Air pollution control actions thirteenth century
 Most of the major effort in the world has taken place since 1945,
before that other matters were in the priority list
 1930s and 1940s: Factory issuing a thick plume of smoke was
considered a sign of prosperity
 1945-1969 awareness of air pollution problems gradually increased
 Passage of National environmental policy Act and the clean air act of
1970
 In the late 1980s: New theme entered the air pollution area- a GLOBAL
AIR POLLUTION

77
MAJOR AIR POLLUTION
PROBLEM EMERGED
 Greenhouse effect
 Ozone depletion
 Acidification
 Smog formation
 Eutrophication
 Human health
 Environmental concern earlier considered a luxury which only a
developed country US can afford
 For people who are worried for their meal, home medial bill air
pollution may not be very important
 For a person whose basic needs has been satisfied air pollution
control can be of much greater cause of concern
 Poor people are more exposed to more severe pollution

88
ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES AND MONITORING
Soil Quality (depth structure, fertility, degree of
salination or acidification, stability.
Air Quality, climatic changes
Water Quantity, quality, seasonability, area of man
made lakes, Extent of irrigation canal.
Biota Abundance/ scarcity of species of genetic
resource
Extent of crops ecosystem
Vegetation and forests
Diversity of species
Extent of provision of resting ground, etc.
for migration of species
Pest and disease organism
Noise Residential, shop floor, industrial

99
TThhee AAttmmoosspphheerree
 N2 780900 ppm (78.09%)
 O2 209400 ppm (20.94%)
 Argon 9300 ppm (0.93 %)
 CO2 372 ppm (0.037%)
 Everything else is less than 0.003 % or 30 ppm

1100
LLaayyeerrss ooff tthhee AAttmmoosspphheerree
Stratosphere
begins at about
10 miles above
the surface.
P drops with
altitude.
Does T drop
with altitude?

1111
REAL WORLD
Atmospheric interactions
Pollutant emissions Effects
Source
Air quality
Receptors
Input output
Emission Air quality
models
Air quality
Input Input
Methodology Air Chemistry

1122
AIR QUALITY IMPACT ANALYSIS
Atmospheric
Interaction
Air quality
Effects
Pollutant emissions
Source Receptors

1133
WWoorrssee AAiirr PPoolllluuttiioonn DDiissaasstteerr
 London, England, 1952
 From December 5 to 8, 1952
 4,000 Londoners perished.

1144
 The effect of air pollution is slow and cumulative.
 Earlier principle cause of death was influenza,
tuberculosis and typhoid fever
 New diseases came- arteriosclerosis, heart,
malfunctioning, stroke, emphysema and cancer
 Cigrette smoking earlier smoking had little effect on
overall life expectancy
 Bhopal tragedy due to methyl isocynate killed 2500
people
 Lekages from Hydrogen sulphide from natural gas
processing plants killed hundreds of people

1155
A Few Well-Known Air Pollution Episodes Around the
Globe in the 20th Century.
Region affected Date Cause Pollutant Effects
Meuse valley,
December
Temperature
SO2 63 deaths
Belgium
1930
inversion
Los Angeles, USA July 1943 Low wind
circulation
smog unknown
Donora, PA, USA October 1948 Weather
inversion
SO2 20 deaths
London, England December
1952
Subsidence
inversion
SO2,
smog
3,000 excess deaths
New York City,
USA
December
1962
Shallow
inversion
SO2 269 excess deaths
Bhopal, India December
1984
Accident methyl
iso-cyanate
> 2,000 deaths
Chernobyl, Ukraine April 1986 Accident Radioact
i-vity
31 immediate deaths, >
30,000 ill
Lake Nyos, Africa April 1986 Natural CO2 1,700 deaths
Kuala Lampur,
September
Forest fire CO, soot Unknown
Malaysia
1997

1166
Concentrations of Principal Air Pollutants in Megacities in
the Developing World.
Country / City SO2,
 g/m3
TSP (PM-
10),  g/m3
CO,  g/m3 NOx,  g/m3 Pb,  g/m3
China:
Beijing (1997)
National
average
(1997)
75
3 to 248
377
32 to 741
NA 122
4 to 140 (1995
data)
NA
Mexico:
Mexico City
(1996)
244 to
482
218 to 442 90,000 to
140,000
295 to 619 NA
India:
New Delhi
(1987)
40 to 90 700 to 1400 NA 45 to 65 0.37 to 4.6
WHO
guideline
(1999)
500 (10
min)
125 ( 24
hr)
50 ( 1 yr)
200 to 250 100,000 ( 15
min)
60,000 (30 min)
30,000 (1 hr)
10,000 (8 hr)
200 (1 hr)
40 ( 1 yr)
0.5 ( 1 hr)
NAAQS
(USA )
1,300 (
3hr)
365 (24
hr)
80 (1 yr)
150 (24 hr)
50 ( 1 yr)
40,000 ( 1 hr)
10,000 ( 8 hr)
100 (1 yr) 1.5 ( quarterly
avg.)
References: 1. Clear Water, Blue Skies: China’s Environment in the New Century, The World Bank, Washington, D. C.
(1977).
2. State of the Environment- China, United Nations Environment Program, New York, NY (1997) .
3. Mage et al, Urban air pollution in megacities of the world, Atmospheric Environment, 30: 681-686 (1996).
4. Air Pollution Aspects of Three Indian Cities, Vol. I. Delhi, National Environmental Engineering Research
Institute, Nagpur, India (1991).
5. F Guzman: Air pollution in Mexico Cityu, The Mexico City Workshop, Integrated Program on Urban,
Regional and Global Air pollution, MIT, Massachusetts, September (1999).
http://eaps.mit.edu/megacities/workshop_99/mexico.html.
6. Air Pollution: Mexico City. http://www.ess.co.at/GAIA/cases/mex. Environmental Software and
Services, GmbH, Gumpoldskirchen, Austria.

1177
HHeeaalltthh EEffffeeccttss:: OOuuttddoooorr AAiirr PPoolllluuttiioonn
Kills 200,000 - 570,000 annually globally.
Kills 20,000 people annually in US.
Particulates and ozone are the biggest problem

1188
HHeeaalltthh EEffffeeccttss::
IInnddoooorr AAiirr PPoolllluuttiioonn -- GGlloobbaall
Kills 2.8 million annual globally
What is major source of indoor air pollution in
developing countries?

1199
SSOOUURRCCEESS OOFF AAIIRR TTOOXXIICCSS

2200
AAiirr PPoolllluuttiioonn –– SSoouurrcceess
Most air pollution is emitted
from fixed and mobile sources
at ground level.

2211
AIR POLLUTION SOURCES
Major
Sources
Area
Sources
Mobile
Sources
Natural
Sources
Miscellaneous
Chemical &
fertlisers plants
Refineries
Petrochemicals
Power plants
Paper mills
Cement plant
Metallurgical
Industries
Municipal
incineration
Dry cleaners
Petrol station
Small print
shops
Electroplating
Domestic ,
commercial
and industrial
fuels
Automobiles
Railways
Airways
Farm
Equipments
Recreational
vehicles
Natural Dust
Storm
Volcanoes
Sea salt
Dispersion
Forest gas
Agricultural
burning

2222
SOURCES
 NATURAL SOURCE: pollen grain, fungus, smoke
etc.
 ANTHROPOGENIC: stationary, movable. (associated
with activity of human beings)
 POINT SOURCE: Pollutant emission from industrial
process stacks, and fuel combustion facility stacks
 AREA SOURCE: Vehicular traffic and fugitive
emissions
 LINE SOURCES: heavily traveled highway facilities
and leading edges of uncontrolled forest fires

2233
PPrriimmaarryy EEmmiissssiioonn SSoouurrcceess
 Area Sources
 Paved and unpaved roads
 Construction activities
 Open or prescribed burning
 Point Sources
 Metals processing (smelters,
iron & steel, etc.)
 Mineral products (cement
stone quarrying)
 Utility and industrial
combustion (soot, flyash)
 Waste disposal and recycling
 Mobile Sources
 Highway vehicles (diesel) off-road
vehicles (lawn & garden
equipment)

2244
SSeeccoonnddaarryy EEmmiissssiioonn SSoouurrcceess
SOx - Fuel combusion (utilities, industrial);
industrial processes (smelters, iron & steel
manufacture, oil refining, etc.)
NOx - Combustion sources (utilities,
industrial); mobile sources (highway & off-road
engines)
VOC - Mobile sources, biogenic sources,
evaporation (solvent & fuel), residential wood
combustion
Ammonia (NH3) - Waste from animal
husbandary, fertilizer application

2266
CLASSIFICATION OF AIR POLLUTANTS
Natural contaminants : Natural fog, pollen grain, bacteria, volcanic
eruption, wind blown dust lightning generated fires
Gaseous: oxidized S, N, CO, CO2, hydrocarbons
Particulate: dust smoke, fumes, mist, fog.

2277
PPhhoottoocchheemmiiccaall SSmmoogg
Main harmful
ingredient in smog is
ozone.
Ozone is formed
when UV radiation,
high temperatures,
Nitrogen oxides, and
VOCs combine.
What are the primary
sources of smog?

2288
AAcciidd RRaaiinn
Acid rain is formed from SO2 and NO2
pollution.
What are the sources of acid rain?

2299
AAcciidd RRaaiinn
Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid
(HNO3) are formed and precipitated on
vegetation in lakes and streams.

CCLLIIMMAATTEE AANNDD AAIIRR QQUUAALLIITTYY
IInnfflluueenncciinngg eelleemmeennttss aanndd tthheeiirr ppootteennttiiaall eeffffeeccttss
WWiinndd:: ddiirreeccttiioonnss aanndd ssppeeeedd
WWiillll tthhee pprroojjeecctt mmooddiiffyy tthhee llooccaall wwiinndd bbeehhaavviioorr??
PPrreecciippiittaattiioonn//hhuummiiddiittyy
WWiillll tthhee pprroojjeecctt hhaavvee aann iimmppaacctt uuppoonn tthhee llooccaall
pprreecciippiittaattiioonn //hhuummiiddiittyy ppaatttteerrnn??
WWiillll tthhee pprroojjeecctt bbee ssiitteedd iinn aa ““hhiigghh rriisskk”” aarreeaa??
TTeemmppeerraattuurree
WWiillll tthhee pprroojjeecctt hhaavvee aann iimmppaacctt uuppoonn tthhee llooccaall
tteemmppeerraattuurree ppaatttteerrnn??
AAiirr QQuuaalliittyy
WWiillll tthhee pprroojjeecctt ggeenneerraattee aanndd ddiissppeerrssee aattmmoosspphheerriicc
ppoolllluuttaannttss??
WWiillll tthhee pprroojjeecctt ggeenneerraattee aannyy iinntteennssee ooddoorrss??

3311
CCLLIIMMAATTEE AANNDD AAIIRR
QQUUAALLIITTYY Sub element Potential Impact(s) Required Information
Wind: directions and
Will the project modify
speed
the local wind behaviour
Wind speeds and
directions, including
unusual conditions.
Height of structures.
Precipitation/
humidity
Will the project have an
impact upon the local
precipitation/humidity
pattern?
Precipitation/humidity
data including unusual
conditions-flash floods,
etc.
Temperature Will the project have an
impact upon the local
temperature pattern?
Temperature data,
including the extremes.
Air Quality Will the project generate
and disperse atmospheric
pollutants? Will the
project generate any
intense odours?
Estimate of atmospheric
emissions from point,
area and line sources,
fugitive emissions

3322
PPaarrttiiccuullaattee MMaatttteerr:: WWhhaatt iiss IItt??
Particulate matter is a complex mixture of
extremely small particles and liquid droplets
Human Hair (70 μm diameter)
Hair cross section (70 mm)
PM2.5
(2.5 μm)
PM10
(10μm)

3333
PPaarrttiiccuullaattee MMaatttteerr ((PPMM)):: TThhee MMaajjoorr
KKiilllleerr
PM is a complex mixture variable in
Size (0.01- 100 μm)
Composition (Metals, nitrates , sulfate, PAH,
VOC etc.)
Concentration
Toxicity and penetration depends on the
composition and six of the particles.
In reality we breathe a complex mixture of
pollutants in varying proportions. Hence the
health effects are the impact of this complex
mixture rather than a particular pollutant per se.

3344
Figure : Size Difference Between Particulate Matter (PM 10 and PM 2.5),
Human Hair and Finest Beach Sand

3355
PPMM--22..55 OOvveerrvviieeww
PM-2.5
 Characteristics, sources, health and
environmental effects
1997 PM-2.5 Standards
Monitoring Data
Regulatory Schedule
Key Issues

3366
FFiinnee PPaarrttiicclleess iinn tthhee AAiirr

3377
FFiinnee PPaarrttiicclleess:: WWhhyy YYoouu SShhoouulldd CCaarree

3388
PPaarrttiicclleess AAffffeecctt tthhee LLuunnggss ……
Respiratory system effects
 Chronic bronchitis
 Asthma attacks
 Respiratory symptoms (cough,
wheezing, etc.)
 Decreased lung function
 Airway inflammation

3399
…… aanndd tthhee HHeeaarrtt
Cardiovascular system effects
 Heart attacks
 Cardiac arrhythmias
 Changes in heart rate and heart
rate variability
 Blood component changes

4400
PPuubblliicc HHeeaalltthh RRiisskkss AArree SSiiggnniiffiiccaanntt
Particles are linked to:
 Premature death from heart and lung disease
 Aggravation of heart and lung diseases
 Hospital admissions
 Doctor and ER visits
 Medication use
 School and work absences
 And possibly to
 Lung cancer deaths
 Infant mortality
 Developmental problems, such as low birth weight
in children

4411
SSoommee GGrroouuppss AArree MMoorree aatt RRiisskk
People with heart or
lung disease
 Conditions make them
vulnerable
Older adults
 Greater prevalence of
heart and lung disease
Children
 More likely to be active
 Breathe more air per lb.
 Bodies still developing

4433
FFiinnee PPaarrttiicclleess RReedduuccee VViissiibbiilliittyy
Example: Chicago in the summer of 2000
 Left – a clear day: PM 2.5 < 5 μg/m3
 Right – a hazy day: PM 2.5 ~ 35 μg/m3

4444
EEnnvviirroonnmmeennttaall EEffffeeccttss
Reduced visibility
 Across country
 National parks
React w/ moisture
 Acid rain
 Other acidic pollution
Damage to paint/building materials
Damage to vegetation/crops

4466
AAiirr PPoolllluuttaannttss MMoonniittoorriinngg
Collect and review
information
Select monitoring
level
Conduct
monitoring
Develop
Monitoring plan
Summarize/
Evaluate results
• Source data
• Receptor data
• Modeling data
• Routine operation
• Quality control
• Field documentation
• Screening
• Refined screening
• Refined
• Select monitoring constituents
• Specify meteorological monitoring
• Design network
• Select monitoring methods/equipment
• Develop sampling and analysis QA/QC
• Data review and validation
• Data summaries
• Consider monitoring uncertainties
• Dispersion modeling applications
 Monitoring Air Pathway Analysis

4477
Overview
Why measure ?
What do we measure ?
How do we make these measurements ?
What do we do with all this new data ?

4488
CCEENNTTRRAALL PPOOLLLLUUTTIIOONN CCOONNTTRROOLL BBOOAARRDD
NNaattiioonnaall AAmmbbiieenntt AAiirr QQuuaalliittyy SSttaannddaarrddss
Pollutant Time Weighted
Average
Concentration of Ambient Air
Industrial
Area
Residential, Rural
and Other Area
Sensitive
Area
Method of Measurement
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Sulphur Dioxide
(SO2)
Annual
Average *
24 hours**
80 μg/m3
120 μg/m3
60 μg/m3
80 μg/m3
15 μg/m3
30 μg/m3
- Improved West and
Gaeke Method
- Ultraviolet
fluorescence
Oxized of
Nitrogen as
NO2
Annual
Average *
24 hours**
80 μg/m3
120 μg/m3
60 μg/m3
80 μg/m3
15 μg/m3
30 μg/m3
-Jacob Hochheister
modified (Na-
Arsenite)
-Gas Phase
Chemilumine
scence
Suspended
Particulate
Matter
(SPM)
Annual
Average *
24 hours**
360 μg/m3
590 μg/m3
140 μg/m3
200 μg/m3
70 μg/m3
100 μg/m3
-High Volume Sampling
(Average flow rate
net less than 1.1
m3/minute)

4499
Respirable
Particulate
Matter (Size less
than 10μm)
(RPM)
Annual
Average *
24 hours**
12 μg/m3
150 μg/m3
60 μg/m3
100 μg/m3
50 μg/m3
75 μg/m3
- Respirable Particulate
Matter sampler
Lead (Pb) Annual
Average *
24 hours**
1.0 μg/m3
1.5 μg/m3
0.75 μg/m3
1.00 μg/m3
0.5 μg/m3
0.75 μg/m3
- AAS Method after
sampling using EPM
2000 or equivalent filter
paper
Carbon
Monoxide
8 hours **
1 hour
5.0mg/m3
10 mg/m3
2.0mg/m3
4.0 mg/m3
1.0mg/m3
2.0 mg/m3
- NDIRS
Ammonia 24 hours
Annual
0.4 mg/m3
0.1 mg/m3
-
Annual Arithmetic mean of minimum 104
measurements in a year taken twice a week 24
hourly at uniform interval.
24 hourly/8 hourly values should be met 98% of
the time in a year. However, 2% of the time , it
may exceed but not on two consecutive days.

5500
MMEEAASSUURREEMMEENNTT OOFF AAIIRR QQUUAALLIITTYY
 Ambient Air Quality
 Measurement of Emission
 Meteorological Measurement
Pollution Parameter Equipment
Dust fall Dust Fall Jar
Suspended High Volume Sampler,
Particulates Inertial collectors,
Respirable
Dust Sampler
Total Sulfur Lead Candle
Compounds
Sulphur Dioxide Air Sampling Kit
Hydrogen Sulphide Air Sampling Kit
Oxides of Nitrogen Air Sampling Kit
Wind Direction Recording Vane
Wind Velocity Wind Velocity Meter
Temperature and Humidity Whirling Psychrometer

Various instrumental techniques used for air pollution parameters
S.No Instrumental Techniques Parameter covered
1 Conductometry SO2
2 Colorimetry SO2, NOx
3 Coulometry-Amperometry SO2, NOx, Oxidants (O3),
CO
4 Paper Tape (H2S Conversion) SO2
5 Electochemical Cells (EMF Generation) SO2, NOx, CO
6 Catalytic Oxidation CO
7 Chemeical Sensing-Specific Ion Electrodes SO2, NOx
8 Chemiluminescence O3, NOx
9 Flame photometry detector couples with GC SO2
10 Flame ionisation detector couples with GC CO, CH4, Hydrocarbons
11 Non dispersive infrared absorption (NDIR) CO
12 Fluorescence NDIR
Pulsed Fluorescence
Hydrcarbons
SO2, H2S
13 Non-dispersive-UV-Visible Absorption Oxidants

5522
S.No Instrumental Techniques Parameter covered
14 Mercury Substitution UV Absorption CO
15 Ultra Violet Fluorescence SO2
16 Bioluminescence SO2, NOx, CO
17 Correletion Spectroscopy SO2, NOx
18 Second Derivative Spectroscopy UV, NOx, Oxidants

5533
Techniques used for semi-automatic or laboratory instruments
for particulate matter
19 Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometers All metals
20 Atomic Fluorescence Metals- Zn, Cd, Cu, Hg
21 X-Ray Fluorescence Mostly all metals
22 GC-GC Mass Spectrometer Aromatic & Chlorinated
Hydrocarbons, Pesticides,
Oxidants
23 Neutron Activation Heavy metals- Vanadium,
Hg
24 Anodic Metals- Cu, Cd, Pb

5544
OObbjjeeccttiivvee ooff aa ssaammpplliinngg pprrooggrraamm
To establish and evaluate control
measures
To evaluate atmospheric-diffusion model
parameters.
To determine areas and time periods
when hazardous levels of pollution exists
in the atmosphere.
For emergency warning systems.

5555
AIR QUALITY SURVEILLANCE
PROGRAMMES
 Representative selection of something----primarily
guided by topography and micro meteorology of the
region
 Adequate sampling frequency
 Inclusion of all the major pollution parameters
 Characterization of the existing ambient air quality
 Prediction from different emission scenario through
pollution modeling for existing micrometeorological
and topographical feature.

5566
MMoonniittoorriinngg SSyysstteemmss
Ambient air quality data may be obtained
through the use of mobile or fixed
sampling networks and the use of
integrated samplers or continuous
monitors.
Decisions regarding monitoring
techniques constitute the first important
steps in design of monitoring network.

5577
FFiixxeedd vvss.. MMoobbiillee SSaammpplliinngg
Fixed-point sampling - A network of monitoring
stations at selected sites, operated
simultaneously throughout the study. Stations
are permanent or, at least, long term
installations.
Mobile sampling network – the
monitoring/sampling instruments are rotated on
schedule among selected locations. Equipment
is generally housed in trailers, automobiles, or
other mobile units.

5588
CCoonnttiinnuuoouuss vvss.. IInntteeggrraatteedd SSaammpplliinngg
Continuous monitoring – Conducted with
devices that operate as both sampler and
analyzer. Pollutant concentrations are
instantaneously displayed on a meter,
continuously recorded on a chart,
magnetic tape, or disk.
Integrated sampling – Done with devices
that collect a sample over some specified
time interval after which the sample is sent
to a laboratory for analysis.

SSeelleeccttiioonn ooff IInnssttrruummeennttaattiioonn aanndd MMeetthhooddss
5599
Type of pollutants
Average time specified by air quality
criteria or standards
Expected pollutant levels
Available resources
Availability of trained personal
Presence in the air of interfering materials

6600
DDuurraattiioonn ooff ssaammpplliinngg ppeerriioodd
Two types of sampling are used in the
studies of air pollution.
 Short period or Spot sampling
 Continuous sampling

6611
LLooccaattiioonn ooff ssaammpplliinngg ssiitteess
The necessary number of sampling
stations and their location depend on
several factors including the objective
of the programme, the size of the study
area, the proximity of the sources of
the sources of pollution, topographical
features and the weather.

6622
AAMMBBIIEENNTT AAIIRR SSAAMMPPLLIINNGG
The typical air sampling system
contains a sample collector, a flow
meter and a pump to draw air sample
through the system
Ambient air is sampled for the
collection of
gaseous pollutants
particulate matter

6633
CCOOLLLLEECCTTIIOONN OOFF GGAASSEEOOUUSS AAIIRR
PPOOLLUUTTAANNTTSS
The common methods used for the
collection of gaseous pollutants are
1. Grab sampling
2. Absorption in liquids
3. Adsorption on solid materials
4. Freeze out sampling

6644
11.. GGrraabb ssaammpplliinngg
In grab sampling the sample is
collected by filling an evacuated flask
or an inflatable bag or any rigid wall
container.

6655
22.. AAbbssoorrppttiioonn iinn lliiqquuiiddss
Absorption separates the desired
pollutant from air either through direct
solubility in the absorbing medium or
by chemical reaction. Devices like
fritted gas absorber and impengers are
widely used for this purpose as the
provide large contact surface area.

6677
GASEOUS
POLLUTANT
S
SUITABLE SOLVENTS
Sulphur
dioxide
Sodium hydroxide,sodium sulphite,magnesium
oxide,calcium carbonate,calcium oxide and
calcium hydroxide solutions
Nitrogen
oxides
Ammonium bicarbonate, ammonium bisulphite,
calcium hydroxide,magnesium hydroxide and
sodium hydroxide solutions
Hydrogen
sulphide
Sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide
solutions
Hydrogen
chloride
Water, ammonia, calcium and magnesium
hydroxide solution

6688
Chlorine Solutions of sodium hydroxide,
sodium sulphite, sodium
thiosulphite and water
Phosgene Sodium hydroxide and water
Ammonia Sulphuric acid, nitric acid
Mercaptans Sodium hypochlorite solution

6699
33.. AAddssoorrppttiioonn oonn ssoolliiddss
This method is based on the tendency of
gases to be adsorbed on the surface of solid
materials. The sample air is passed through
a packed column containing a finely divided
solid adsorbents, on whose surface the
pollutants are retained and concentrated.
The most widely used solid adsorbents are
activated charcoal and silica gel.

7700
44.. FFrreeeezzee oouutt ssaammpplliinngg
In this method a series of cold traps,
which are maintained at progressively
lower temperatures are used to draw
the air samples, where by the
pollutants are condensed. These
pollutants are later analyzed by mass
spectrometry.

ANALYSIS OF PARTICULAR AIR POLLUTANTS
7722
POLLUTANTS ANALYSER PRINCIPLE
Sulphur Dioxide Flame Photometer Emission
spectrometry
Nitrogen Oxides Chemiluminescent
analyser
Emission
spectrometry
Carbon Monoxide Nondispersive
Infrared analyser
Energy absorption
From IR radiations
Hydrocarbons Flame ionisation
detector
Ionisation
Particulate Matter Beta attenuation
monitor
Beta attenuation

7733
FLAME PHOTOMETER
( for analysis of Sulphur Dioxide )
When an air stream containing sulphur is ignited in a hydrogen-rich flame,
a characteristic flame emission spectrum is produced with a band centered at
394m and amount of light emitted proportional to the concentration of Sulphur.

7744
CHEMILUMINESCENT ANALYSER
( for analysis of Nitrogen Oxides )
Reaction with ozone produce Nitrogen dioxide in excited state that emits
radiant energy The intensity of radiationemitted is proportional to the amount
of nitric oxide.

7755
NONDISPERSIVE INFRARED ANALYSER
( for analysis of Carbon Monoxide )
Carbon Monoxide absorbs infrared radiations and passes varying amount
of infrared energy,inversely proportional to CO concentration to detector
causing mechanical movement in the diaphragm .

7766
FLAME IONISATION DETECTOR
( for analysis of hydrocarbons )
Hydrocarbons on burning produce complex ionization forminglarge number of
ions .An electric field setup establises an ionisation current proportional to the
concentration of hydrocarbons in sample .

7777
OOrrggaanniicc VVaappoouurr SSaammpplleerr
A known amount of air is passed through
Activated Charcoal tube at a constant flow
rate (100 to 200 ml/min) with minimum
pressure drop (10-15 mm Hg). Volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) are adsorbed
on Activated Charcoal which is later
desorbed/extracted using a suitable
organic solvent. Extracted/desorbed
solvent is used for quantifying the organic
compounds (VOCs) with the help of Gas
Chromatograph.

7788
CCOOLLLLEECCTTIIOONN OOFF PPAARRTTIICCUULLAATTEE
MMAATTTTEERR
Particulate matter are generally sampled
using
1. Sedimentation (dust fall jar)
2. High volume sampler
3. Tape sampler
4. Thermal precipitation
5. Electrostatic precipitator

7799
11.. DDuusstt ffaallll jjaarr
This is the simplest device used for
sampling particles larger than 10 micro
meters.
Dust fall jar is simply a plastic jar with
slightly tappered inwards.

8800
22.. HHiigghh vvoolluummee ssaammpplleerr
In this method, a known volume of air
is sucked by a high speed blower
through a fine filter and the increase in
weight due to trapped particles is
measured.

8811
HHiigghh VVoolluummee SSaammpplleerr EEnnvviirrootteecchh AAPPMM 443300

8822
SScchheemmaattiicc DDiiaaggrraamm ooff RReessppiirraabbllee DDuusstt
SSaammpplleerr ((AAPPMM 445511 && 441111))..
IItt ffiirrsstt sseeppaarraatteess tthhee ccooaarrsseerr ppaarrttiicclleess ((llaarrggeerr tthhaann 1100 mmiiccrroonnss)) ffrroomm
tthhee aaiirr ssttrreeaamm bbeeffoorree ffiilltteerriinngg iitt oonn 00..55 mmiiccrroonn ppoorree--ssiizzee ffiilltteerr aalllloowwiinngg
aa mmeeaassuurree mmeenntt ooff bbootthh tthhee TTSSPP aanndd tthhee rreessppiirraabbllee ffrraaccttiioonn ooff tthhee tthhee
TTSSPP aanndd tthhee rreessppiirraabbllee ffrraaccttiioonn ooff tthhee ssuussppeennddeedd ppaarrttiiccuullaattee mmaatttteerr
((SSPPMM))..

8833
33.. TTaappee ssaammpplleerr
In this method a known volume of air is passed
through a paper tape, on which the particulates
get collected forming a dark spot.
COH/1000 ft = log [(T0 A x 105)/(T V)]
 T0 = the transmittance of clean tape (100%)
 T = the percentage of light transmitted through the spot
 A = area of the spot in square feet
 V = Volume of the sample in cubic feet.

8844
44.. TThheerrmmaall pprreecciippiittaattiioonn
This is based on the principle that
small particles, under the influence of a
strong temperature gradient between
two surfaces, have a tendency to move
towards the lower temperature and get
deposited on the colder of these two
surfaces

8855
55.. EElleeccttrroossttaattiicc PPrreecciippiittaattoorr
Here a negative charge is imparted to a wire
placed axially inside a cylinder which is
positively charged. When a particle laden
stream is passes through the cylinder, the
particles acquire a negative charge from a
corona discharge occurring on the central
wire .The particles migrate towards the inner
surface of the cylinder, loose their charge
and are collected for subsequent analysis.

8866
FFIINNEE
PPAARRTTIICCUULLAATTEE
SSAAMMPPLLEERR

8877
TTyyppeess ooff PPMM CCEEMMss
Light scatter
 Forward, side, backward
Beta Attenuation
Probe Electrification (charge transfer)
Light Extinction (opacity)
Optical Scintillation

8888
OOppaacciittyy mmeetteerr
PM emissions can be continuously
detected through opacity measurements.
Opacity is a function of light transmission
through the plume and is defined by the
formula:
OP = [1-(I/I0)] x 100
OP = percent opacity
I = light flux leaving the plume
I0 = incident light flux

8899
OOppaacciittyy AAddvv../DDiissaaddvv..
10,000+ already
installed
 Measures attenuation of
light
 Adversely affected by
 Particle size, shape,
density changes
 Measures liquid drops
as PM
 Not sensitive to low PM
concentration
 Cost more than a light
scatter PM CEM
 Correlation to mass
conc. not linear

990
OOppttiiccaall SScciinnttiillllaattiioonn AAddvv../DDiissaaddvv..
Low price $10,000
Easy to install
Low maintenance
Not sensitive to low
PM concentration
Doesn’t detect
particles < ~ 2μm
Adversely affected by
particle density
change
Measures liquid
drops as PM

9911
SSmmookkee mmeeaassuurreemmeenntt
Smoke particles are
mainly unburnt
carbon resulting from
incomplete
combustion.
Ringelmann Chart – A
scheme where
graduated shades of
gray vary by five
equal steps between
white and black.

9922
CCoonnttiinnuuoouuss mmoonniittoorriinngg IInnssttrruummeennttss aanndd TThheeiirr WWoorrkkiinngg
PPrriinncciipplleess
System Operating principle Sensitivity
CO Monitor
(Catalytic)
CO gets converted to CO2 in presence of
Hopcalite catalyst (mixtures of CuO, MnO2,
Co2O2, Ag2O).
Specific for
CO
sensitivity –
2 ppm
NO.NOx, NH3
Monitor
The method is based on chemiluminescent
between NO and O3. The light intensity is
monitored as a function of NO concentration.
Very specific
for NO.
Sensitivity –
0.005 ppm
Ozone
Chemiluminescence
(CL) Monitor
The chemiluminescence reaction between O3
and ethylene is used in this method
Very specific
for ozone.
Sensitivity –
0.005 ppm
Coulometric SO2
Monitor
Electrochemically liberated iodine or bromine
reacts with SO2.
Sensitivity –
0.002 ppm
UV fluorescence
SO2 monitor
SO2 molecules are excited by absorption of UV
light (214 nm) from a zinc discharge lamp and
fluorescence emission measured in UV region.
Sensitivity –
0.002 ppm
NDIR Analuser for
CO2, CO, CH4, SO2
Principle- Absorption of IR by gases at their
characteristic wavelength.
Sensitivity
CO – 10 ppm
CO2 – 5 ppm
CH4 – 5 ppm
SO2 – 20
ppm
SPM monitor Beta absorption of 14C beats through filter
containing SPM.
Sensitivity –
50 μg/m3.
H2S
Chemiluminescence
Monitor
H2S reacts with ozone and excited SO2 emits
chemiluminescence in the UV region while
retrning to ground state.
Sensitivity –
0.01 ppm

9933
AAiirr PPoolllluuttiioonn MMeetteeoorroollooggyy –– IInnssttrruummeennttss aanndd tthheeiirr
SSppeecciiffiiccaattiioonnss

9955
UUnnssttaabbllee AAiirr
If the ambient air
temperature drops
rapidly with altitude, hot
polluted air will rise and
disperse.
What would happen, if
this temperature profile
were inverted?

9988
TTeemmppeerraattuurree IInnvveerrssiioonn
If the there is a temperature
inversion the air will not rise.
This may lead to a severe
pollution episode.
What produces a
temperature inversion?

9999
SSuubbssiiddeennccee IInnvveerrssiioonn
 Descending air compresses and warms, creating an
inversion layer.
 Is there another mechanism?

1100
STACK MONITORING
 To determine the quantity and quality of the pollutant emitted
by the source
 To measure the efficiency of the control equipment by
conducting a survey before and after installation
 To determine the effect of the emission due to changes in raw
materials and processes.
 To compare the efficiency of different control equipments for a
given condition
 To acquire data from an innocuous individual source so as to
determine the cumulative effect of many such sources.
 To compare with the emission standards in order to assess the
need for local control.

11011
STACK EMISSION MONITORING
In stack Emission Monitoring
MANUAL STACK SURVEYS : short duration
tests, usually consisting of three one-hour
tests. Stack sampling equipment is used to
collect effluent samples from the stack.
CONTINUOUS EMISSION MONITORING: This
is done with instruments permanently
installed on the stack. Measurements of the
concentration and flow rate allow the mass
emission rate to be determined on an
ongoing, year round basis.

The following figure shows how stack sampling is done industrially.
The sampling is done by diverting a part of the gas stream
through a sampling train as shown in the following figure
11022

11033
REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE
•Accurate measurement of pressure, moisture, humidity and gas
composition
•The selection of suitable locations for sampling
•Determination of the traverse points required for a velocity and
temperature profile across the cross section of the stack and
sampling for particulate matter.
•The measurement of the rate of flow of gas or air through the stack
•Selection of a suitable sampling train
•Accurate isokinetic sampling rate especially for particulate
sampling
•Accurate measurement of weight and volume of samples collected.

OVERALL OBJECTIVE
The main tasks involved are to determine the pollutant
concentration, stack gas flow rate and pollutant mass emission rate.
These terms are related as
11044
PMRs = Cs ´Qs
The average volumetric stack gas flow rate, Qs
is determined by measuring the average gas velocity, Vs and the
area of the stack As.
Qs = Vs ´ Cs
The basic equation to determine the velocity of flow inside the stack is
Vs = KP ´ CP
1/ 2
´ D
T P
s
P M
s s
þ ý ü
î í ì
´

11055
SELECTION OF SAMPLING LOCATION
The sampling point should be as far as possible from any
disturbing influence, such as elbows, bends, transition
pieces, baffles or other obstructions. The sampling point,
wherever possible should be at a distance 5-10 diameters
down-stream from any obstructions and 3-5 diameters up-stream
from similar disturbance.
SIZE OF SAMPLING POINT
The size of sampling point may be made in the range of 7-
10 cm, in diameter.

11066
PPRROOCCEEDDUURREE FFOORR PPAARRTTIICCUULLAATTEE
MMAATTTTEERR SSAAMMPPLLIINNGG
1. Determine the gas composition and
correct to moisture content.
2. Determine the temperature and velocity
at each point using pitot tube at each
traverse point
3. Determine the empty weight of the
thimble
4. Mark out the traverse points on the
probe.
5. Check all points leakages

11077
6. Determine the flow rate to be sampled under
isokinetic conditions
7. Insert the probe at the traverse point 1, very close
to the stack. Start the pump and adjust the flow so
that the rotameter reads the predetermined value.
8. Switch off the pump at the end of sampling time.
9. Read the vacuum at the dry gas meter (DGM) and
also the temperature.
10. Move the probe to the subsequent traverse points
by repeating the steps five to eight.
11. After completion of collection of samples, remove
the probe and allow it to cool.

11088
12. Remove the thimble carefully. Some of the dust
would have adhered to the nozzle. This should be
removed by tapping and transferred to the thimble.
13. Weigh the thimble with the sample. The difference
in weight gives the dust collected.
14. The volume of sample collected is either given by
the dry gas meter (cu m) or by the sampling rate
given by rotameter multiplied by the sampling
time.
15. Hence from (13) and (14), the emission rate can be
calculated. This will be at DGM conditions. This is
to be corrected for temperature and pressure so as
to obtain values for standard conditions.

11099
TTyyppiiccaall aaiirr ssaammpplliinngg ttrraaiinn
Gravimetric
Volumetric
Microscopy
Instrumental
 Spectrophotometric – Ultraviolet, Visible (Colorimetry),
Infra-red.
 Electrical – Conductometric, Coulometric, Titrimetric.
 Emission Spectroscopy
 Mass Spectroscopy
 Chromatography

111111
TRAVERSE POINTS
For the sample to become representative, it should be
collected at various points across the stack. This is
essential as there will be changes in velocity and
temperature (hence the pollutant concentration) across
the cross-section of the stack. Traverse points have to
be located to achieve this.
Cross-section area of stack
(sq-m)
No. of points
0.2
0.2 to 2.5
2.5 and above
4
12
20

111133
ISOKINETIC CONDITIONS
Representative samples can be achieved by isokinetic
sampling. Isokinetic conditions exist when the velocity
in the stack Vs equals the velocity at the top of the
probe nozzle Vn at the sample point.

111144
RReeaassoonn ffoorr IIssookkiinneettiicc SSaammpplliinngg

111155
DETERMINATION OF GAS COMPOSITION
The first step in the field work of stack sampling is to
determine the gas composition. This can be determined
by using Orsat apparatus /
DETERMINATION OF MOISTURE CONTENT
Wet bulb and dry bulb temperature technique
Condenser technique
Silica gel tube
DETERMINATION OF TEMPERATURE
DETERMINATION OF VELOCITY: Pitote Tube

111166
TTwweellvvee ppeerrcceenntt CCaarrbboonn DDiiooxxiiddee
 The method for concentration correction to 12 % CO2 is:
 C0 = Measured concentration of constituent at standard conditions.
 C12 = Measured concentration of constituent at standard conditions
when corrected to 12% CO2 by volume on a dry basis.
 FCO2 = Correction factor for constituent concentration when adjusting
to 12% CO2 by volume on a dry basis.
 %CO2 = Percent carbon dioxide by volume on a dry basis.

111177
RREECCEENNTT TTRREENNDDSS IINN SSAAMMPPLLIINNGG
OOFF SSTTAACCKK EEFFFFLLUUEENNTTSS
The recent technology is useful to
manufacturers of equipment for online
sampling of stack effluents. Two main
monitors useful for determining
particulate concentration in stacks are
Piezoelectric Monitor
Beta attenuation Monitor

111188
11.. PPiieezzooeelleeccttrriicc MMoonniittoorr
In this device, particles in a sample
stream are electrostatically deposited
on to a piezoelectric sensor. The added
weight of particulates changes the
osillation frequency of the sensor in a
charectristic way. The out put signal
can be conditioned so that it becomes
directly proportional to particulate
mass concentration, which is recorded
either by digital or analog recorder.

11220
22.. BBeettaa AAtttteennuuaattiioonn MMoonniittoorr
For the analysis of particulate matter.
 Here the particulate sample is filtered using a
continuous filter tape and the mass concentration of
the filtered out is determined by measuring its
attenuation of beta radiation, whose characteristics
do not vary widely for different particulate
compositions hence a direct mass measurement is
possible.
 Carbon -14 with a half life of 5,568 years is a typical
beta radiation source.

112222
BBeettaa AAtttteennuuaattiioonn PPMM CCEEMMss
MSI BetaGuard PM
Durag F904K
Environment S.A. 5M

112233
HHaannddyy SSttaacckk SSaammpplleerr EEnnvviirrootteecchh
AAPPMM 662200

112244
SSttaacckk vveelloocciittyy mmoonniittoorr
EEnnvviirrootteecchh AAPPMM 660022

112255
GGaass aannaallyyssiiss ffrroomm CCoommbbuussttiioonn
PPrroocceessss
Monitoring NO, NO2 &
SO2 analysis from
Combustion Process
in stack analysis of up
to six gas phase stack
emission components

FUGITIVE EMISSION MONITORING
112266
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) can
be emitted from leaking valves, flanges,
sampling connections, pumps, pipes
and compressors. Emissions of these
types are commonly called fugitive
emissions.

112277
FFuuggiittiivvee EEmmiissssiioonnss
Unintentional releases, such as those due
to leaking equipment, are known as
fugitive emissions
Can originate at any place where
equipment leaks may occur
Can also arise from evaporation of
hazardous compounds from open topped
tanks

112288
SSoouurrcceess ooff FFuuggiittiivvee EEmmiissssiioonnss
Pumps
27%
Flanges
3%
Relief valves
18%
Drains
1%
Compressors
8%
Valves
43%
A g i t a t o r s e a l s L o a d i n g a r m s
C o m p r e s s o r s e a l s M e t e r s
C o n n e c t o r s O p e n - e n d e d l i n e s
D i a p h r a m s P o l i s h e d r o d s
D r a i n s P r e s s u r e r e l i e f d e v i c e s
D u m p l e v e r a r m s P u m p s e a l s
F l a n g e s S t u f f i n g b o x e s
H a t c h e s V a l v e s
I n s t r u m e n t s V e n t s

112299
MMeeaassuurriinngg FFuuggiittiivvee EEmmiissssiioonnss
Portable gas detector
Catalytic bead
Non-dispersive infrared
Photo-ionization detectors
Combustion analyzers
Standard GC with flame ionization
detector is most commonly used

113300
MMeeaassuurriinngg FFuuggiittiivvee EEmmiissssiioonnss
Average emission factor approach
Screening ranges approach
EPA correlation approach
Unit-specific correlation approach

AAvveerraaggee EEmmiissssiioonn FFaaccttoorr AApppprrooaacchh
113311
E F W F T O C A T O C = ×
ETOC = TOC emission rate from a component (kg/hr)
FA = applicable average emission factor for the component (kg/hr)
WFTOC = average mass fraction of TOC in the stream serviced by the component
T a b l e 1 0 . 9
A v e r a g e e m i s s i o n f a c t o r s f o r e s t i m a t i n g f u g i t i v e e m i s s i o n s
E q u i p m e n t t y p e S e r v i c e
T O C e m i s s i o n f a c t o r
( k g / h r / s o u r c e )
S O C M I R e f i n e r y
M a r k e t i n g
T e r m i n a l
V a l v e s G a s
L i g h t l i q u i d
H e a v y l i q u i d
0 . 0 0 5 9 7
0 . 0 0 4 0 3
0 . 0 0 0 2 3
0 . 0 2 6 8
0 . 0 1 0 9
0 . 0 0 0 2 3
1 . 3 x 1 0 - 5
4 . 3 x 1 0 - 5
-
P u m p s e a l s G a s
L i g h t l i q u i d
H e a v y l i q u i d
-
0 . 0 1 9 9
0 . 0 0 8 6 2
-
0 .1 4 4
0 .0 2 1
6 . 5 x 1 0 - 5
5 . 4 x 1 0 - 4
-

113322
SSccrreeeenniinngg RRaannggeess AApppprrooaacchh
Leak/ No-leak approach
more exact than the average emissions
approach
 relies on screening data from the facility,
rather than on industry wide averages
E F N F N T O C G G L L = ( × ) + ( × )
T O C e m i s s i o n r a t e f o r a n e q u i p m e n t t y p e
F G = a p p l i c a b l e e m i s s i o n f a c t o r f o r s o u r c e s w i t h s c r e e n i n g v a l u e s g r e a t e r t h a n
o r e q u a l t o 1 0 , 0 0 0 p p m v ( k g / h r / s o u r c e )
N G = e q u i p m e n t c o u n t f o r s o u r c e s w i t h s c r e e n i n g v a l u e s g r e a t e r t h a n o r e q u a l t o
1 0 , 0 0 0 p p m v
F L = a p p l i c a b l e e m i s s i o n f a c t o r f o r s o u r c e s w i t h s c r e e n i n g v a l u e s l e s s t h a n
1 0 , 0 0 0 p p m v ( k g / h r / s o u r c e )
N L = e q u i p m e n t c o u n t f o r s o u r c e s w i t h s c r e e n i n g v a l u e s l e s s t h a n 1 0 , 0 0 0 p p m v

113333
EEPPAA CCoorrrreellaattiioonn AApppprrooaacchh
Predicts mass emission rates as a
function of screening values for a
particular equipment type
Total fugitive emissions = sum of the
emissions associated with each of the
screening values
Default-zero leak rate is the mass
emission rate associated with a
screening value of zero

113344
EEPPAA CCoorrrreellaattiioonn AApppprrooaacchh
T a b l e 1 0 . 1 1
E P A c o r r e l a t i o n s f o r e s t i m a t i n g f u g i t i v e e m i s s i o n s
E q u i p m e n t t y p e T O C l e a k r a t e f r o m c o r r e l a t i o n *
( k g / h r / u n i t )
D e f a u l t - z e r o
e m i s s i o n r a t e
( k g / h r / u n i t )
S O C M I R e f i n e r y
G a s v a l v e s 1 . 8 x 1 0 - 6 S V 0 . 8 7 3 - 6 . 6 x 1 0 - 7
L i q u i d l i q u i d v a l v e s 6 . 4 1 x 1 0 - 6 S V 0 . 7 9 7 - 4 . 9 x 1 0 - 7
V a l v e s ( a l l ) - 2 . 2 9 x 1 0 - 6 S V 0 .7 4 6 7 . 8 x 1 0 - 6
L i g h t l i q u i d p u m p s 1 . 9 0 x 1 0 - 5 S V 0 . 8 2 4 - 7 . 5 x 1 0 - 6
P u m p s e a l s ( a l l ) - 5 . 0 3 x 1 0 - 5 S V 0 .6 1 0 2 . 4 x 1 0 - 5
C o n n e c t o r s 3 . 0 5 x 1 0 - 6 S V 0 . 8 8 5 - 6 . 1 x 1 0 - 7
C o n n e c t o r s - 1 . 5 3 x 1 0 - 6 S V 0 .7 3 5 7 . 5 x 1 0 - 6
F l a n g e s - 4 . 6 1 x 1 0 - 6 S V 0 .7 0 3 3 . 1 x 1 0 - 7
O p e n - e n d e d l i n e s - 2 . 2 0 x 1 0 - 6 S V 0 .7 0 4 2 . 0 x 1 0 - 6

113355
UUnniitt--SSppeecciiffiicc CCoorrrreellaattiioonn AApppprrooaacchh
Most exact, but most expensive method
Screening values and corresponding
mass emissions data are collected for a
statistically significant number of units
A minimum number of leak rate
measurements and screening value pairs
must be obtained to develop the
correlations

113366
CCoonnttrroolllliinngg FFuuggiittiivvee EEmmiissssiioonnss
Modifying or replacing existing equipment
Implementing a leak detection and repair
(LDAR) program

113377
EEqquuiippmmeenntt MMooddiiffiiccaattiioonn
E q u i p m e n t t y p e M o d i f i c a t i o n
A p p r o x i m a t e
c o n t r o l
e f f i c i e n c y
( % )
P u m p s S e a l l e s s d e s i g n 1 0 0
C l o s e d - v e n t s y s t e m 9 0
D u a l m e c h a n i c a l s e a l w i t h b a r r i e r f l u i d m a i n t a i n e d
a t a h i g h e r p r e s s u r e t h a n t h e p u m p e d f l u i d
1 0 0
C o m p r e s s o r s C l o s e d - v e n t s y s t e m 9 0
D u a l m e c h a n i c a l s e a l w i t h b a r r i e r f l u i d m a i n t a i n e d
a t a h i g h e r p r e s s u r e t h a n t h e p u m p e d f l u i d
1 0 0
P r e s s u r e - r e l i e f
d e v i c e s
C l o s e d - v e n t s y s t e m v a r i e s
R u p t u r e d i s k a s s e m b l y 1 0 0
V a l v e s S e a l l e s s d e s i g n 1 0 0
C o n n e c t o r s W e l d t o g e t h e r 1 0 0
O p e n - e n d e d l i n e s B l i n d , c a p , p l u g o r s e c o n d v a l v e 1 0 0
S a m p l i n g
C l o s e d - lo o p s a m p l i n g 1 0 0
c o n n e c t i o n s

113388
VVaallvveess UUsseedd iinn IInndduussttrryy

11339
VVaallvveess UUsseedd iinn IInndduussttrryy ((ccoonntt..))

114400
LLDDAARR PPrrooggrraammss
Designed to identify pieces of equipment
that are emitting sufficient amounts of
material to warrant reduction of emissions
through repair
Best applied to equipment types that can
be repaired on-line or to equipment for
which equipment modification is not
suitable

114411
FFuuggiittiivvee EEmmiissssiioonnss ffrroomm SSttoorraaggee
TTaannkkss
There are six basic tank designs
Fixed roof
 vertical or horizontal
 least expensive
 least acceptable for storing liquids
 emission are caused by changes in
• temperature
• pressure
• liquid level
( a ) T y p i c a l f i x e d - r o o f t a n k .

FFuuggiittiivvee EEmmiissssiioonnss ffrroomm SSttoorraaggee TTaannkkss
External floating roof
114422
– open-topped cylindrical steel shell
– steel plate roof that floats on the surface of the liquid
– emission limited to evaporation losses from
• an imperfect rim seal system
• fittings in the floating deck
• any exposed liquid on the tank wall when liquid is
withdrawn and the roof lowers
Domed external floating roof
– similar to internal floating roof tank
– existing floated roof tank retrofitted with a fixed roof to
block winds and minimize evaporative loses

114433
EExxtteerrnnaall FFllooaattiinngg RRooooff TTaannkkss
( b ) E x t e r n a l f l o a t i n g r o o f t a n k ( p o n t o o n
t y p e ) .
( d ) D o m e d e x t e r n a l f l o a t i n g r o o f t a n k .

114444
(( cc )) II nn tt ee rr nn aa ll ff ll oo aa tt ii nn gg rr oo oo ff tt aa nn kk ..
Internal floating roof
– permanent fixed roof with
a floating roof inside
– evaporative losses from
• deck fittings
• non-welded deck
seams
• annular space
between floating deck
and the wall

Variable vapor space
114455
– expandable vapor reservoirs to accommodate
volume fluctuations due to:
• temperature
• barometric pressure changes
– uses a flexible diaphragm membrane to provide
expandable volume
– losses are limited to:
• tank filling times when vapor displaced by
liquid exceeds tank’s storage capacity

Pressure tanks
114466
 low or high pressure
– used for storing organic liquids and gases with high
vapor pressures
– equipped with pressure/vacuum vent to prevent venting
loss from
• boiling
• breathing loss from temperature and pressure
changes

114477
EEmmiissssiioonnss EEssttiimmaattiioonn ffrroomm SSttoorraaggee
TTaannkkss
L L L T S W = +
LT = total losses, kg/yr
LS = standing storage losses, kg/yr
LW = working losses, kg/yr
The standing storage losses are due to
breathing of the vapors above the liquid in
the storage tank
L V W K K S V V E S = 3 6 5
VV = vapor space volume, m3
WV = vapor density, kg/m3
KE = vapor space expansion factor,
dimensionless
KS = vented space saturation factor,
dimensionless
365 = days/year
W
M P
V V A
L A
=
V R T
MV = vapor molecular weight
R = universal gas constant, mm Hg-L/K-mol
PVA = vapor pressure at daily average liquid
surface temperature,
TLA = daily average liquid surface temperature,
K
K
T
T
P P
D D D
V
L A
-
-
V B
A V A
= +
E P P
TV = daily temperature range, K
PV = daily pressure range,
PB = breather vent pressure setting range,
PA = atmospheric pressure,

114488
EEmmiissssiioonnss EEssttiimmaattiioonn ffrroomm SSttoorraaggee
TTaannkkss
K
S P H
V A V O
=
+
1
1 0 .0 5 3
HVO = vapor space outage, ft = height of a cylinder of tank diameter, D,
whose volume is equivalent to the vapor space volume of the tank
L M P Q K K W V V A N P = 0 .0 0 1 0
Q = annual net throughput (tank capacity (bbl) times annual turnover rate), bbl/yr
KN = turnover factor, dimensionless
for turnovers > 36/year, KN = (180 + N)/6N
for turnovers  36, KN = 1
where N = number of tank volume turnovers per year
KP = working loss product factor, dimensionless
for crude oils = 0.75
for all other liquids = 1.0

FFuuggiittiivvee EEmmiissssiioonnss ffrroomm WWaassttee,,
11449
TTrreeaattmmeenntt aanndd DDiissppoossaall
I = important S = secondary N = negligible or not applicable
Surface Wastewater treatment plants Land
Pathway impoundments Aerated Non-aerated treatment Landfill
Volatilization I I I I I
Biodegradation I I I I S
Photodecomp. S N N N N
Hydrolysis S S S N N
Oxidation/red’n N N N N N
Adsorption N S S N N
Hydroxyl radical N N N N N

115500
AAUUTTOOMMOOBBIILLEE EEMMIISSSSIIOONN
Automobiles are ‘necessary evils’, while
they have made living easy and
convenient, they have also made human
life more complicated and vulnerable to
both toxic emissions and an increased risk
of accidents.

115511
--EENNVVIIRROONNMMEENNTTAALL IISSSSUUEESS
 Delhi – total pollution load declines from 412,000t – 328,000 t
(1998-2020)
 By 2020, two wheelers and cars contribute 80% HC
emissions in Delhi
 Two wheelers alone contribute 70% of CO2 emissions
 Annual Pollution load in Mumbai declines by 40%
 Particulates, SOx and NOx declines due to the decline in
diesel usage
 CO2 emissions by 2020 under BAU in Delhi would be 2.57
times the present value
 In Mumbai it would be 2.7 times
 CO2 emissions in Delhi are 2.4 times higher than Mumbai at
any given time

115533
Following factors make pollution from the
vehicles more serious in developing
countries
Poor quality of vehicles creating more
particulates and burning fuels inefficiently.
Lower quality of fuel being used leads to far
greater quantities of pollutants.
Concentration of motor vehicles in a few large
cities
Exposure of a larger percentage of population
that lives and moves in the open.

115566
PPOOLLLLUUTTAANNTTSS PPRROODDUUCCEEDD BBYY
 HC-Unburned fuel molecules or partialburning
 NOx-under high pressure and temperature
 conditions in an engine
 CO-Due to incomplete combustion
 CO2-Due to perfect combustion

MMOONNIITTOORRIINNGG

115588
MMoobbiillee AAiirr PPoolllluuttiioonn VVaann
 Mobile system to
monitor Air, Water,
Noise &
meteorological
parameters
 Design to meet
customers needs
 Self contained with
Air conditioner and
power gensets
 Designed to suit
Indian road
conditions

11559
EExxttrraaccttiivvee mmuullttiiggaass aannaallyyzzeerr
ssyysstteemm
 For continuous
emission monitoring.
 Used to measure the
concentration of oxides
of nitrogen (NOX),
sulphur dioxide (SO2),
carbon dioxide (CO,
CO2), oxygen (O2),
hydrocarbons (HCs)
and water vapour (H2O)
in the flue gas of large
combustion processes,
incinerators and other
processes when it is
required by legislation.

116600
AAuuttoo eexxhhaauusstt AAnnaallyysseerr ffoorr PPeettrrooll

116611
DDiieesseell SSmmookkee MMeetteerr

116622
DDiieesseell PPaarrttiiccuullaattee MMoonniittoorriinngg

116633
VVoollaattiillee OOrrggaanniicc VVaappoouurr MMoonniittoorr
Based on a portable
photo ionization
detector (PID).
It detects a wide
range of volatile
organic compounds
(VOCs) and various
other gases.

116644
 Based on a portable
photo ionization detector
(PID) with a barcode
scanner.
 It is a practical way to log
and detect a wide range
of volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) and
various other gases.
 Bar code scanner
simplifies tracking fugitive
emissions

116655
NNoonn MMeetthhaannee HHyyddrrooCCaarrbboonn
AAnnaallyyzzeerr
Hydrocarbon
detection from sub-ppm
to 1,000 ppm
levels

116666
OOiill iinn WWaatteerr AAnnaallyyzzeerr
CONTINUOUS MONITORING
SYSTEM FOR OIL IN WATER

116688
 Neem in Indian culture has been
ranked higher than
'Kalpavriksha', the mythological
wish-fulfilling tree.
 In 'Sharh-e-Mufridat Al-
Qanoon, neem has been named
as 'Shajar-e-Mubarak', 'the
blessed tree', because of its
highly beneficial properties.
 Although scientific studies are
wanting, neem is reputed to
purify air and the environment
of noxious elements. Its shade
not only cools but prevents the
occurrence of many diseases.

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