Mycoplasma pneumoniae are bacteria that can cause illness by damaging the lining of the respiratory system (throat, lungs, windpipe). People can have the bacteria in their nose or throat at one time or another without being ill. People spread Mycoplasma pneumoniae bacteria to others by coughing or sneezing.
This presentation on Adenovirus was prepared and presented by me and my classmate.This topic generally comes under subject of virology. Hope you will find it helpful. Thank you.
This presentation on Adenovirus was prepared and presented by me and my classmate.This topic generally comes under subject of virology. Hope you will find it helpful. Thank you.
The rhinovirus (from the Greek ῥίς rhis "nose", gen ῥινός rhinos "of the nose", and the Latin vīrus) is the most common viral infectious agent in humans and is the predominant cause of the common cold. Rhinovirus infection proliferates in temperatures of 33–35 °C (91–95 °F), the temperatures found in the nose. Rhinoviruses belong to the genus Enterovirus in the family Picornaviridae.
The three species of rhinovirus (A, B, and C) include around 160 recognized types of human rhinovirus that differ according to their surface proteins (serotypes).[1] They are lytic in nature and are among the smallest viruses, with diameters of about 30 nanometers. By comparison, other viruses, such as smallpox and vaccinia, are around ten times larger at about 300 nanometers; while flu viruses are around 80–120 nm.
1.INTRODUCTION
2.HISTORY
3.MORPHOLOGY
4.STRUCTURE
5.CLASSIFICATION
6.CHARACTERSTICS
7.DISEASES
8.CONCLUSION
REFRENCES
Mycoplasmas are prokaryotic , without cell wall & have been placed under the class Mollicutes & the order Mycoplasmatales.
Mycoplasma are the smallest microorganism which have been known to cause a number of disease in animals &human kind.
The cells are bounded by a soft trilamellar lipoproteinaceous unit membrane containing sterols. Because of their plasticity , they can pass through bacterial filters & have often been mistaken for viruses.
The rhinovirus (from the Greek ῥίς rhis "nose", gen ῥινός rhinos "of the nose", and the Latin vīrus) is the most common viral infectious agent in humans and is the predominant cause of the common cold. Rhinovirus infection proliferates in temperatures of 33–35 °C (91–95 °F), the temperatures found in the nose. Rhinoviruses belong to the genus Enterovirus in the family Picornaviridae.
The three species of rhinovirus (A, B, and C) include around 160 recognized types of human rhinovirus that differ according to their surface proteins (serotypes).[1] They are lytic in nature and are among the smallest viruses, with diameters of about 30 nanometers. By comparison, other viruses, such as smallpox and vaccinia, are around ten times larger at about 300 nanometers; while flu viruses are around 80–120 nm.
1.INTRODUCTION
2.HISTORY
3.MORPHOLOGY
4.STRUCTURE
5.CLASSIFICATION
6.CHARACTERSTICS
7.DISEASES
8.CONCLUSION
REFRENCES
Mycoplasmas are prokaryotic , without cell wall & have been placed under the class Mollicutes & the order Mycoplasmatales.
Mycoplasma are the smallest microorganism which have been known to cause a number of disease in animals &human kind.
The cells are bounded by a soft trilamellar lipoproteinaceous unit membrane containing sterols. Because of their plasticity , they can pass through bacterial filters & have often been mistaken for viruses.
توثيق مراجع البحث العلمي على أنو: "إثبات ادلصادر البيانات وادلعلومات ونسبها إىلnedalalazzwy
عترب البحث العلمي ادلمنهج ذاك الذي يستويف يف مجيع مراحلو مراعاة معايري البحث العلمي ادلنهجي
خاصة فيما خيص األمانة يف اعتماد ادلراجع سواء كانت دراسات سابقة او مراجع لبعض االقتباسلت والعبارات
وزبتلف عملية التوثيق للمراجع باختالف مصدرىا ونوعها واختالف رلال زبصصها فتوثيق التت ملال خيتلف
عنو يف توثيق ادلقاالت الصحفية وخيتلف عن توثيق ادلواد االلتًتونية وىذه األخرية خيتلف يف توثيقها تبعا ألنواعها
ىي األخرى واذلدف من ذلك ىو حفاظ الباحث على سهولة العودة اىل ادلصادر وادلراجع ادلستخدمة بالنسبة
لقراء حبقو العلمي وىو أيضا من باب األمانة العلمية
A single nucleotide polymorphism (abbreviated SNP, pronounced snip) is a genomic variant at a single base position in the DNA. Scientists study if and how SNPs in a genome influence health, disease, drug response and other traits.
Mycology is the branch of biology concerned with the study of fungi, including their genetic and biochemical properties, their taxonomy and their use to humans, including as a source for tinder, traditional medicine, food, and entheogens, as well as their dangers, such as toxicity or infection.
Rabies virus, scientific name Rabies lyssavirus, is a neurotropic virus that causes rabies in humans and animals. Rabies transmission can occur through the saliva of animals and less commonly through contact with human saliva. Rabies lyssavirus, like many rhabdoviruses, has an extremely wide host range.
Immunofluorescence (IF) is a technique that permits visualization of virtually many components in any given tissue or cell type. This broad capability is achieved through combinations of specific antibodies tagged with fluorophores. Consequently, the pos
fastidious organism is any organism that has complex or particular nutritional requirements. In other words, a fastidious organism will only grow when specific nutrients are included in its medium.
An antigen is any substance that causes your immune system to produce antibodies against it. This means your immune system does not recognize the substance, and is trying to fight it off. An antigen may be a substance from th
Multiplex PCR is a technique whereby PCR is used to amplify several different DNA sequences simultaneously. It is a type of target enrichment approach. It was first described in 1988 as a method to detect deletion mutations in the dystrophin gene – the largest known human gene
Radio Immuno Assay, Immuno Fluorescent Test, Lab 4.pptxnedalalazzwy
A RIA is a very sensitive in vitro assay technique used to measure concentrations of substances, usually measuring antigen concentrations (for example, hormone .
What is enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay?
A laboratory technique that uses antibodies linked to enzymes to detect and measure the amount of a substance in a solution, such as serum. The test is done using a solid surface to which the antibodies and other molecules stick.
Infectious diseases can be viral, bacterial, parasitic or fungal infections. There's also a rare group of infectious diseases known as transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs).
Classification of medical parasitology Lec.2.pptxnedalalazzwy
Parasitology is the scientific discipline concerned with the study of the biology of parasites and parasitic diseases, including the distribution, biochemistry, physiology, molecular biology, ecology, evolution and clinical aspects of parasites, including the host response to these agents.
What is toxoplasmosis? Toxoplasmosis is an infection caused by a single-celled parasite called Toxoplasma gondii. While the parasite is found throughout the world, more than 40 million people in the United States may be infected with the Toxoplasma parasite.
Integrons are genetic elements that contain a site-specific recombination system able to integrate, express and exchange specific DNA elements, called gene cassettes. 5. The complete integron is not considered to be a mobile element as such as it lacks functions for self-mobility.
A microarray is a laboratory tool used to detect the expression of thousands of genes at the same time. DNA microarrays are microscope slides that are printed with thousands of tiny spots in defined positions, with each spot containing a known DNA sequence or gene.
Cloning is a technique scientists use to make exact genetic copies of living things. Genes, cells, tissues, and even whole animals can all be cloned. Some clones already exist in nature. Single-celled organisms like bacteria make exact copies of themselves each time they reproduce.
A cell cycle is a series of events that takes place in a cell as it grows and divides. A cell spends most of its time in what is called interphase, and during this time it grows, replicates its chromosomes, and prepares for cell division. The cell then leaves interphase, undergoes mitosis, and completes its division.
Polymerase chain reaction (abbreviated PCR) is a laboratory technique for rapidly producing (amplifying) millions to billions of copies of a specific segment of DNA, which can then be studied in greater detail.
Assay of sodium hydroxide solution.pptxnedalalazzwy
sodium hydroxide is useful for its ability to alter fats. It is used to make soap and as a main ingredient in household products such as liquid drain cleaners. Sodium hydroxide is usually sold in pure form as white pellets or as a solution in water.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journey
745_Mycoplasma.pptx
1.
2. LAYOUT
INTRODUCTION
HISTORY
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
GENOME
TAXONOMIC CLASSIFICATION
CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
BIOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES
ANTIGENIC PROPERTIES
RESISTANCE
PATHOGENESIS
IMMUNITY
EPIDEMIOLOGY
SPECTRUM OF DISEASES
LABORATORY DIAGNOSIS
PROPHYLAXIS AND TREATMENT
MYCOPLASMAS AS NORMAL FLORA
3. INTRODUCTION
Mycoplasmas are the smallest and simplest
self-replicating bacteria.
The mycoplasma cell contains minimum set of
organelles essential for growth and replication: a
plasma membrane, ribosomes, and a genome
consisting of a double-stranded circular DNA
molecule.
Unlike all other prokaryotes, the mycoplasmas
have no cell walls, and they are consequently
placed in a separate class Mollicutes(mollis,
soft; cutis, skin).
4. CONTD….
Mycoplasmas have been nicknamed the
“crabgrass” of cell cultures.
Contamination of cell cultures by mycoplasmas
presents serious problems in research laboratories
and in biotechnological industries using cell
cultures.
The origin of contaminating mycoplasmas is in
components of the culture medium, particularly
serum, or in the flora of the technician's mouth,
spread by droplet infection.
5. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MYCOPLASMAS, BACTERIA,
CHLAMYDIA & VIRUSES
CHARACTER MYCOPLASMA BACTERIA CHLAMYDIA VIRUSES
SIZE
0.2-0.3µm 1-2µm 0.3µm 0.01-0.3µm
CELL WALL
- + + -
PRESENCE OF BOTH
DNA & RNA + + + -
MULTIPLICATION IN
CELL-FREE MEDIUM + + - -
MULTIPLICATION
DEPENDENT ON HOST
NUCLEIC ACID
- - - +
CHOLESTEROL
REQUIREMENT + - - -
INTRINSIC ENERGY
METABOLISM + + + -
NARROW HOST RANGE
+ - - +
SENSITIVITY TO
ANTIBIOTICS INHIBITING
CELL WALL SYNTHESIS
- + + -
SENSITIVITY TO
ANTIBIOTICS INHIBITING
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
+ + + -
6. HISTORY
The name Mycoplasma is derived from the Greek word
mykes (fungus) and plasma (formed) [Mycos
:Fungus like form of branching filaments & Plasma
:Denoting plasticicity of their shape].It was first used by
Albert Bernhard Frank in 1889. He thought it was a
fungus, due to fungus-like characteristics.
An older name for Mycoplasma was Pleuropneumonia-
Like Organisms (PPLO), referring to organisms similar
to the causative agent of contagious bovine
pleuropneumonia (CBPP).It was later found that the
fungus-like growth pattern of M. mycoides is unique to
that species.
7. CONTD….
In 1898 Nocard and
Roux reported the
cultivation of the
causative agent of
CBPP, which was at
that time a grave and
widespread disease in
cattle herds. The
disease is caused by
M. mycoides subsp.
mycoides .
8. CONTD….
Eaton in 1944 was the first to isolate the causative
agent of PAP(Primary Atypical Pneumonia) in
hamsters and cotton rats.
He was able to transmit the infection later to chick
embryos by amniotic inoculation.
Because it was filterable, it was considered to be a
virus(Eaton agent), but was subsequently shown to
be a mycoplasma and named Mycoplasma
pneumoniae.
9. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Very small(0.2-0.3 µm) .
Can pass through bacterial filters.
Lack a rigid cell wall.
Bound by a single trilaminar cell membrane that
contains a sterol.
Extremely pleomorphic varying in shape from
coccoid to filamentous to other bizzare forms.
10. ELECTRON MICROGRAPH OF THIN-SECTIONED MYCOPLASMA CELLS
Cells are bounded by a
single membrane
showing in section the
characteristic trilaminar
shape. The cytoplasm
contains thin threads
representing sectioned
chromosome and dark
granules representing
ribosomes.
(Courtesy of RM Cole, Bethesda, Maryland).
11. CONTD….
Mycoplasma, Ureaplasma, Spiroplasma and
Anaeroplasma cannot synthesize their own cholesterol
and require it as a growth factor in culture medium.
Acholeplasma synthesizes carotenol as a substitute for
cholesterol, but will incorporate cholesterol if it is
provided.
Insensitive to cell-wall active antibiotics such as
penicillins and cephalosporins.
Limited biosynthetic capabilities due to a small genome.
12. CONTD….
Multiply by binary fission. However, cytoplasmic division
may lag behind genome division. This results in the
formation of multinucleate filaments and other shapes.
Do not possess flagellae or pili
Non sporing
Stain poorly with Gram stain. Can be stained with
Giemsa and Dienes methods.
Are considered as stable L forms by some researchers
but this hypothesis is still not fully accepted.
13. CONTD…
Cells may either divide
by binary fission or first
elongate to
multinucleate filaments,
which subsequently
breakup to coccoid
bodies.
From Razin S: Mycoplasmas: the smallest
pathogenic procaryotes. Isr J Med Sci
17:510, 1981, with permission.
14. CONTD….
Membrane proteins & glycolipids exposed on the cell
surface are the major antigenic determinants in
mycoplasmas.
Antisera containing antibodies to these components
inhibit growth and metabolism of the mycoplasmas and,
in the presence of complement, cause lysis of the
organisms.
These properties are used in various serologic tests that
differentiate between mycoplasma species and
serotypes and detect antibodies to mycoplasmas in sera
of patients.
15. CONTD….
Some mycoplasmas possess unique attachment organelles,
which are shaped as a tapered tip in M. pneumoniae and M.
genitalium. Mycoplasma pneumoniae is a pathogen of the
respiratory tract, adhering to the respiratory epithelium,
primarily through the attachment organelle.
Interestingly, these two human mycoplasmas exhibit gliding
motility on liquid-covered surfaces. The tip structure always
leads, again indicating its importance in attachment.
One of the most useful distinguishing features of
mycoplasmas is their peculiar fried-egg colony shape,
consisting of a central zone of growth embedded in the agar
and a peripheral one on the agar surface.
16. GENOME
The mycoplasma genome is typically prokaryotic, consisting of a
circular, double stranded DNA molecule.
The Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma genomes are the smallest
recorded for any self-reproducing prokaryote.
In some mycoplasmas the number is estimated at fewer than
500, about one sixth the number of genes in Escherichia coli.
Mycoplasmas accordingly express a small number of cell
proteins and lack many enzymatic activities and metabolic
pathways.
Their nutritional requirements are correspondingly complex,
and they are dependent on a parasitic mode of life.
19. CONTD….
Family Mycoplasmataceae has two genera:
Mycoplasma( approx.100 species) & Ureaplasma
(6 species).
Family Acholeplasmataceae has only one genus,
Acholeplasma which comprises 10 species of which
one species A.laidlawii may be found from the
specimens of human oral cavity, respiratory tract
and genital tract.
Spiroplasmataceae(Genus: Spiroplasma) &
Anaeroplasmataceae(Genus: Anaeroplasma).
20. CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
Aerobes and facultative anaerobes except Anaeroplasma which is
strictly anaerobic.
For primary isolation, an atmosphere of 95% Nitrogen and 5%
Carbon dioxide is preferred.
They can grow within a temperature range of 22-41°C, the parasitic
species growing optimally at 35-37°C.
For fermentative organisms, the initial pH of the medium is adjusted
to 7.3-7.8, for arginine metabolizing organisms it should be around 7
and for ureaplasmas, range of pH should be 6-6.5.
21. CONTD….
The dependence of mycoplasmas on their host for
many nutrients explains the great difficulty of
cultivation in the laboratory.
The complex media for mycoplasma culture contain
serum, which provides fatty acids and cholesterol
for mycoplasma membrane synthesis.
The requirement of most mycoplasmas for
cholesterol is unique among prokaryotes.
The consensus is that only a small fraction of
mycoplasmas existing in nature have been
cultivated so far.
22. CONTD….
Some of the cultivable mycoplasmas, including the
human pathogen M pneumoniae, grow very
slowly, particularly on primary isolation.
Ureaplasma urealyticum, a pathogen of the
human urogenital tract, grows very poorly in vitro,
reaching maximal titers of 107organisms/ml of
culture.
Mycoplasma genitalium, another human
pathogen, grows so poorly in vitro that only a few
successful isolations have been achieved.
23. MEDIA
PPLO broth:
Bovine heart infusion broth to which are added 20% horse serum and
10% fresh yeast extract along with glucose and phenol red as a pH
indicator.
Growth of M.pneumoniae is detected by turbidity and colour
change(red to yellow) of phenol red indicator, due to fermentation of
glucose.
Ureaplasma and other mycoplasmas which do not ferment glucose
show only turbidity.
This medium can be solidified by the addition of agar.
Penicillin, polymyxin B and amphotericin B may be added to inhibit
contaminating bacteria and fungi respectively.
24. CONTD….
Since thallium acetate is inhibitory for U. urealyticum and M.
genitalium and highly poisonous for humans, therefore, it should not
be added to the medium.
A diphasic medium in screw-capped bottle containing an agar phase
that is overlaid with broth medium of similar composition may also be
used.
SP-4 medium: Basal medium( Mycoplasma broth base, tryptone,
peptone, glucose, deionized water) + supplements( CMRL 1066 cell
or tissue culture medium, 10X concentrate with glutamine, 25%
solution of fresh yeast extract, 2% solution of yeast olate, fresh
bovine serum heated at 56°C for 1 hour, penicillin 100,000 units/ml,
phenol red solution, 0.1% w/v).
25. COLONIES
Incubation: 2-6 days. Media for isolation of genital
mycoplasmas and M. pneumoniae should be incubated
for 1 and 4 weeks respectively, before a final culture
report is made.
Size: 200-500µm for mycoplasmas and 15-60µm for
ureaplasmas. The colonies of Ureaplasma are extremely
small and thus Ureaplasma are also called T-strains
(tiny strains).
Platinum loops: Can’t be picked up.
Subculture is done by cutting out an agar block with
colonies and rubbing it on fresh plates.
27. DIENES STAIN
Contains azure II, methylene blue, Na2CO3, benzoic acid
and distilled water.
The plate containing suspected Mycoplasma colonies is
flooded with Dienes stain diluted 1 in 10 in water. It is then
immediately rinsed with distilled water to remove the stain.
The medium is decolorized by adding 1ml of 95% ethanol for
1 minute and then removed.
The wash step is repeated second time, rinsed with distilled
water and allowed to dry.
The colonies are then observed under low power of a
microscope.
28. CONTD….
Mycoplasmas with the FRIED EGG COLONY
morphology appear highly granular and stain with a
dark blue centre and a light blue periphery.
The agar background appears clear or slightly
violet.
Mycoplasmas other than M. pneumoniae remain
stained, but M.pneumoniae reduces the methylene
blue after a period and becomes colourless.
29.
30. Glucose and other metabolizable carbohydrates
can be used as energy sources by the fermentative
mycoplasmas possessing the Embden-Meyerhof-
Parnas glycolytic pathway.
Oxidative phosphorylation does not occur as
an ATP-generating mechanism.
BIOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES
31. CONTD….
Breakdown of arginine by the arginine
dihydrolase pathway has been proposed as a
major source of ATP in nonfermentative
mycoplasmas.
Ureaplasmas have a requirement, unique among
living organisms, for urea. Because they are non-
glycolytic and lack the arginine dihydrolase
pathway, it has been suggested, and later proven
experimentally, that ATP is generated through an
electrochemical gradient produced by ammonia
liberated during the intracellular hydrolysis of
urea by the organism's urease.
32. BIOCHEMICAL REACTIONS
SPECIES GLUCOSE ARGININE UREA
M. pneumoniae + - -
M. salivarium - + -
M. orale - + -
M. hominis - + -
U. urealyticum - - +
M. fermentans + + -
M. genitalium + - -
A. laidlawii + - -
33. ANTIGENIC PROPERTIES:
Surface Antigens: Made up of Glycolipids and proteins.
Glycolipids antigens are identified by complement fixation
test.
Glycolipids with similar antigenic structure have been found in
human brain.
Protein antigens - ELISA.
Growth inhibition Test: Particular technique useful for the
identification of isolates based on the ability of antisera to
specifically inhibit the growth of the homologous species on
solid media.
34. RESISTANCE:
Destroyed at 450C in 15 min.
Resistant to lysis by Osmotic shock, penicillin and
Cephalosporins.
Sensitive: To Surface acting agents, lipolytic
agents(taurocholate, digitonin), Tetracyclines,
Erythromycin.
Susceptibility to Macrolide antibiotics and erythromycin is
used for species differentiation.
Growth is inhibited by Gold salts.
They( M. pneumoniae) can grow in presence of 0.002%
methylene blue in agar while other species are inhibited.
36. CONTD….
Most mycoplasmas that infect humans and other
animals are surface parasites, adhering to the
epithelial linings of the respiratory and urogenital
tracts.
Adherence is firm enough to prevent the elimination
of the parasites by mucous secretions or urine.
The intimate association between the adhering
mycoplasmas and their host cells provides an
environment in which local concentrations of toxic
metabolites excreted by the parasite build up and cause
tissue damage .
37. CONTD….
Moreover, because mycoplasmas lack cell walls, fusion
between the membranes of the parasite and host has been
suggested, and some experimental evidence for it has
recently been obtained.
Membrane fusion would alter the composition and
permeability of the host cell membrane and enable the
introduction of the parasite's hydrolytic enzymes into the
host cell, events expected to cause serious damage.
Recent studies have indicated the presence in mycoplasmas
of antigenic variability systems. These systems, some of
which are already defined in molecular genetic terms, are
responsible for rapid changes in major surface protein
antigens. The change in the antigenic coat of the parasite
helps it to escape recognition by the immune
mechanisms of the host.
38. CONTD….
A. Adherence factors
The adherence proteins are one of the major virulence factors.
The adherence protein in M. pneumoniae has been identified as
a 168kDa protein called P1. The P1 adhesin localizes at tips of
the bacterial cells and binds to sialic acid residues on host
epithelial cells. MgPa is a similar adherence protein in M.
genitalium.
The nature of the adhesins in the other species has not been
established.
Colonization of the respiratory tract by M. pneumoniae results in
the cessation of ciliary movement. The normal clearance
mechanisms of the respiratory tract do not function, resulting in
contamination of the respiratory tract and the development of a
dry cough.
39. CONTD….
Transmission electron
photomicrographs of the
specialized tip organelle of
cytadherence-positive M.
pneumoniae demonstrating:
a) Truncated structure with nap.
b) Clustering of cytadherence-
related proteins (P1, B, C,
P30) at the tip based on
immunolabeling with ferritin
and colloidal gold and
crosslinking studies.
c) Triton X-100-resistant,
cytoskeleton-like, structure
with distinct bleb and parallel
filaments
41. CONTD….
B. Toxic Metabolic Products
o The intimate association of the mycoplasma and the
host cells provides an environment in which toxic
metabolic products accumulate and damage host
tissues.
o Both hydrogen peroxide and superoxide, which are
products of mycoplasma metabolism, have been
implicated in pathogenesis since oxidized host lipids (
like malonyldialdehyde) have been found in infected
tissues.
o Furthermore, the mycoplasmas have been shown to
inhibit host cell catalase by excreting superoxide
radicals ( O2
– ), thereby increasing the peroxide
concentrations.
43. CONTD….
C. Immunopathogenesis
o Mycoplasmas can activate macrophages and
stimulate cytokine production and lymphocyte
activation (M. pneumoniae is a superantigen).
Thus, it is has been suggested that host factors
also contribute to pathogenesis.
o Experimental evidence in animals supports this
suggestion. Ablation of thymus function before
infection with M. pneumoniae prevents the
development of pneumonia and animals in which
thymic function is restored develop pneumonia at
an exacerbated rate.
44. CONTD….
Epidemiologic data in humans suggest that
repeated infections are required before clinical
disease is observed, again suggesting a role for
host related factors in pathogenesis.
Most children are infected from 2 - 5 years of age
but disease is most common in children 5-15 years
of age.
45. CONTD….
Recently, M. pneumoniae has been shown to
produce an exotoxin that is also believed to play a
major role in the damage to the respiratory
epithelium that occurs during acute infection. This
toxin, named the community-acquired
respiratory disease toxin (CARDS) is an ADP-
ribosylating and vacuolating cytotoxin similar to
pertussis toxin.
Evidence from animal models of M. pneumoniae
infection have proven that recombinant CARDS
toxin results in significant pulmonary inflammation,
release of proinflammatory cytokines, and airway
dysfunction.
46. CONTD….
Variation in CARDS toxin production among M.
pneumoniae strains may be correlated with the
range of severity of pulmonary disease observed
among patients.
The organism also has the ability to exist and possibly
replicate intracellularly, which may contribute to
chronicity of illness and difficult eradication.
Additionally, acute mycoplasmal respiratory tract
infection may be associated with exacerbations of
chronic bronchitis and asthma.
47. CONTD….
An immunopathologic mechanism also may explain the complications
affecting organs distant from the respiratory tract in some patients
infected with M. pneumoniae.
Various autoantibodies have been detected in the sera of many of these
patients, including cold agglutinins reacting with the erythrocyte I
antigen, and antibodies reacting with lymphocytes, smooth muscle
cells, and brain and lung antigens.
Serologic cross-reactions between M. pneumoniae and brain and
lung antigens have been demonstrated, and these antigens are
probably related to the glycolipids of M. pneumoniae
membranes, which are also found in most plants and in many bacteria.
Clearly, host reaction varies markedly, as only about half of the
patients develop cold agglutinins and complications are rare, even
among individuals with anti-tissue globulins.
48. IMMUNITY
Complement activation via the alternative pathway
and phagocytic cells both play a role in resistance
to infection.
As the infection proceeds, antibodies play a role in
controlling infection, particularly IgA.
The development of delayed type
hypersensitivity, however, is associated with the
severity of the disease, which supports the
suggestion that pathogenesis is at least, in part,
immunopathogenesis.
49. EPIDEMIOLOGY
All mycoplasmas cultivated and identified thus far
are parasites of humans, animals, plants, or
arthropods.
The primary habitats of human and animal
mycoplasmas are the mucous surfaces of the
respiratory and urogenital tracts and the joints in
some animals.
Although some mycoplasmas belong to the normal
flora, many species are pathogens, causing various
diseases that tend to run a chronic course.
50. CONTD….
Pneumonia caused by M. pneumoniae occurs worldwide and no increased seasonal
activity is seen.
Epidemics occur every 4 - 8 years.
Studies have indicated that M. pneumoniae is second only to Streptococcus
pneumoniae as a cause of bacterial pneumonia that requires hospitalization in
elderly adults.
Subclinical infections may occur in 20% of adults infected with Mycoplasma
pneumoniae, suggesting that some degree of immunity may contribute to the
failure of appearance of clinical symptoms in some instances.
Recent evidence suggests that M. pneumoniae disease is sometimes much more
severe than appreciated, even in otherwise healthy children and adults.
Severe disease is more common in persons with underlying disease or
immunosuppression.
The overall mortality rate is extremely low, probably less than 0.1%.
51. CONTD….
AGE:
The disease is spread by close contact via
aerosolized droplets and thus is most easily
spread in confined populations (e.g., families,
schools, army barracks). The disease is primarily
one of the young (5 - 15 years of age).
In recent years, M. pneumoniae infection has been
common in persons older than 65 years,
accounting for as much as 15% of community-
acquired pneumonia cases in persons in this
age group.
52. CONTD….
RACE:
No racial predilection is apparent.
SEX:
Available studies indicate no sexual predilection for
M pneumoniae disease.
53. Colonization with M. hominis and U.urealyticum can
occur during birth but in most cases the infection will be
cleared.
Only in a small number of cases does colonization persist.
However, when individuals become sexually active,
colonization rates increase.
Approximately 15% are colonized with M. hominis and
45% - 75% with U. urealyticum.
The carriers are asymptomatic but the organisms can
be opportunistic pathogens.
GENITAL MYCOPLASMAS
54. CONTD….
They are present on mucosal surfaces in so many
healthy persons and can be transmitted venereally
suggesting that variation in prevalence of these
organisms in adults is more likely related to
behavioral variables such as number of sexual
partners and socioeconomic status rather than
to geographic or climatic differences.
In adults with an intact and functional immune
system, infections associated with genital
mycoplasmal organisms are usually localized.
55. CONTD….
Persons with antibody deficiencies reportedly
have developed severe pulmonary infections,
destructive arthritis and osteomyelitis
associated with subcutaneous abscesses, and
other disseminated infections of various organ
systems.
Some organisms, such as M. pirum and
M. penetrans, have been primarily isolated from
persons with HIV infection but their significance
as pathogens in this population has not been
established.
56. CONTD….
Deaths have occurred in neonates with
bloodstream invasion by Ureaplasma species and
meningitis caused by M.hominis; however, in
some instances, the organisms spontaneously
disappeared from CSF without treatment.
Sporadic case reports document fatal infections
caused by Mycoplasma species of animal origin,
including Mycoplasma arginini in
immunosuppressed hosts, but these are extremely
rare.
57. CONTD….
AGE:
Clinically significant infections may
ensue in individuals who are sexually
active and in neonates but are rare to
nonexistent in older children and
adolescents who are not sexually
active, with the exception of those with
immunodeficiencies.
58. CONTD….
RACE:
No racial differences have been observed.
SEX:
No obvious sex predilection is reported for
infections due to genital mycoplasmal species.
The carriage rate of genital Mycoplasma &
Ureaplasma species in the lower urogenital tract is
somewhat greater for females than for males.
59. SPECTRUM OF DISEASES
ORGANISMS CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS
M. pneumoniae Asymptomatic infections
URTI in children: Mild non specific
symptoms like running nose, coryza &
cough, most without fever.
LRTI in adults: Mild illness with non-
productive cough, fever, malaise,
pharyngitis & myalgia; 3-13% of
patients develop pneumonia;
complications include rash, arthritis,
encephalitis, myocarditis, pericarditis
and hemolytic anaemia.
60. CONTD….
Genital Mycoplasmas:
U. Urealyticum & M. hominis
Systemic infections in neonates:
Meningitis, abscess & pneumonia. U.
urealyticum is also associated with
chronic lung disease.
Invasive disease in
immunocompromised patients:
Bacteremia, arthritis(particularly in
agammaglobulinemias), abscesses &
other wound infections, pneumonia ,
peritonitis.
Urogenital tract infections:
Prostatitis, PID, amnionitis, NGU.
M. genitalium NGU in men. Possible cause of
cervicitis & endometritis in females.
61. PRIMARY ATYPICAL PNEUMONIA
(PAP)
Caused by M. pneumoniae.
Other causes of community acquired atypical
pneumonia are L.pneumophila and C.pneumoniae.
Typical features of pneumococcal pneumonias like fever
with chills, pleuritic chest pain and rust- coloured sputum
not seen.
Not recovered on routine sputum cultures, hence,
atypical.
Penicillins and cephalosporins are ineffective as
mycoplasmas lack cell wall and these agents have
poor intracellular penetration, therefore, not
effective against Chlamydiae and Legionellae.
62. CONTD….
IP of PAP is 1-3 weeks and usually recovery occurs
in 3-10 days without antimicrobial therapy.
Some of the antibodies that develop are cold
haemagglutinins, Streptococcus MG agglutinins
and antibodies giving biological false positive
Wasserman reaction.
63. LABORATORY DIAGNOSIS
SPECIMENS COLLECTED:
Throat swabs, nasopharyngeal swabs, sputum, throat washings, bronchoalveolar lavage, tracheal aspirates and lung tissue
specimens.
Genital mycoplasmas may be isolated from urethral, vaginal and cervical swabs, semen, prostatic secretions, urine, blood,
CSF, amniotic fluid and biopsy specimens from endometrium, fallopian tubes, placentae and aborted foetus.
CULTURE:
(1) PPLO broth medium dispensed into small vials may be used for transport of swab specimens, while other specimens may
be transported in sterile screw capped containers.
(2) The culture media should be inoculated as soon as possible.
(3) If delay in inoculation is expected, then specimens my be kept at 4°C for 24 hours and at -70°C for more than 24 hours.
(4) Urine specimens should be centrifuged and deposit inoculated into the medium. If inoculation is not immediately possible,
then urine deposit should be diluted with equal volume of transport medium and frozen.
(5) Later the specimens are processed as mentioned earlier.
64. CONTD….
Identification of colonies:
(1) HAEMADSORPTION TEST:
Colonies growing on the agar are flooded with 2ml of 0.2-
0.4% suspension of washed guinea pig erythrocytes
suspended in Mycoplasma broth medium. The plate is then
incubated at 35°C for 30 minutes. It is occasionally rotated
during this time. It is then washed with 3ml of Mycoplasma
broth medium by gently rotating the plate. Wash fluid is
removed by aspiration with a pipette and colonies examined
under 50X to 100X magnification. Colonies of M.
pneumoniae adsorb erythrocytes to their surface.
Colonies of M. genitalium also share this property.
65. CONTD….
(2) TETRAZOLIUM TEST:
M. pneumoniae has the ability to reduce the colourless compound
triphenyl tetrazolium to red compound formazan. The agar surface
bearing the suspected colonies is flooded with a solution of 2-p-
iodophenyl-3-nitrophenyl-5-phenyl tetrazolium chloride and incubated
at 35°C for 1 hour. Colonies of M.pneumoniae appear reddish
after an hour and may appear purple to black after 3-4 hours.
Other mycoplasmas are negative.
(3) SEROLOGICAL TECHNIQUES:
These include inhibition of colony development around discs
impregnated with specific antiserum or the fluorescence of colonies
treated with such antiserum labelled with a fluorochrome.
66. CONTD….
Biochemical tests may be employed.
More sophisticated tests, including electrophoretic
analysis of cell proteins, DNA-DNA
hybridization tests, mycoplasmal DNA cleavage
patterns by restriction endonucleases, and PCR
tests employing species-specific primers for
amplification, may be performed in a research
laboratory.
67. CONTD….
DETECTION OF ANTIGEN:
In respiratory exudates by direct immunofluorescence and
counterimmunoelectrophoresis techniques, immunoblotting with
monoclonal antibodies and ELISA.
DETECTION OF NUCLEIC ACIDS:
Detection of specific DNA by dot blot hybridization and PCR in
respiratory exudates .
Detection of RNA nucleotide sequences by probe hybridization in
respiratory exudates. M. pneumoniae probe hybridizes with the 16s
rRNA of the organism and uses an I-125 radioactive label to
generate a detection signal. Sensitivity and specificity are >90% and
results are available in 2 hours.
68. SEROLOGICAL TESTS
Serodiagnosis consists of examining serum samples for
antibodies that inhibit the growth and metabolism of the
organism or fix complement with mycoplasmal antigens.
A fourfold or greater rise in IgG titer is considered
indicative of recent infection, whereas a sustained
high antibody titer may not be significant, because a
relatively high level of antibody may persist for at
least 1 year after infection.
A variety of rapid tests based on indirect
hemagglutination of erythrocytes or latex particles
coated with M .pneumoniae antigens have been
developed, and some are commercially available.
69. CONTD….
Specific Tests: Immunoflouresence,
hemagglutination inhibition & metabolic inhibition.
Non specific Tests: Streptococcus MG Tests:- Done by
mixing serial dilutions of the patient’s unheated
serum & a heat killed suspension of Strep MG &
observing after overnight incubation at 370C. A Titre
of 1:20 is suggestive.
70. CONTD….
COLD AGGLUTININS:
Approximately 34% - 68% of patients with M. pneumoniae
infection develop cold agglutinins. Cold agglutinins are antibodies
that agglutinate human erythrocytes at 4 degrees C but not at 37
degrees C.
The antigen to which the antibodies are directed is the I
antigen. These antibodies arise before the complement fixing
antibodies and they decline faster .
Cold agglutinins are not specific for M. pneumoniae infections,
they can also appear in other infections and in other diseases (e.g.
Infectious mononucleosis, rubella, adenovirus infections,
psittacosis, tropical eosinophilia, trypanosomiasis, cirrhosis of
liver, paroxysmal haemoglobinuria, haemolytic anaemia,
influenza infections, cold agglutinin disease, leukemia).
However, if present in a patient with clinical signs of M.
pneumoniae infection, a presumptive diagnosis can be made.
71.
72. CONTD….
Serial dilutions of patients serum are mixed with an
equal volume of 0.2% washed human O group
RBCs & clumping is observed at 40C overnight. The
clumping is dissociated at 370C.
Appear about 1 week after infection with a peak at
4-5 weeks. Thereafter, titres decline rapidly and the
test becomes negative after about five months.
A four-fold rise in titre or a single titre of 32 or
more is suggestive of M. pneumoniae infection.
73. CONTD….
CFT:
Most widely used test.
Complement fixing antibodies appear 7-10 days
after infection with the organisms and reach peak
titre after 4-6 weeks.
Such results are obtained in about 80% of the
cases.
Antigen used is a glycolipid from the organism that
is extracted by chloroform-methanol.
A recent infection is indicated by a four-fold rise in
antibody titre or a single titre of 64 or more.
74. CONTD….
ELISA:
EIA for detection of M. pneumoniae specific IgM,
IgG and IgA antibodies have been developed.
More sensitive than CFT.
Sensitivity is 92% and Specificity is 95%.
76. MYCOPLASMAS AS NORMAL FLORA
ORGANISM SITE OF COLONIZATION
M. orale Oropharynx
M. salivarium Oropharynx
M. buccale Oropharynx
M. faucium Oropharynx
M. lipophilum Oropharynx
M. primatum Genital tract
M. spermatophilum Genital tract
77. REFERENCES
Mackie & Mc Cartney Practical Medical Microbiology-
14th edition.
Bailey & Scott’s Diagnostic Microbiology-12th edition.
Color atlas & textbook of diagnostic
microbiology(Elmer.W.Koneman)-5th edition.
Topley & Wilsons Microbiology & Microbial infections-
10th edition
Saunder’s text and review series by: T.Stuart Walker.
Jawetz Medical Microbiology-24th edition.
Textbook of Microbiology by Ananthanarayan and
Paniker-8th edition.
Textbook of Microbiology by D.R. Arora(3rd edition).
78. CONTD….
Microbiology and immunology online
University of South Carolina: Mycoplasma and
Ureaplasma by Dr Gene Meyer
www.pathomicro.sc.edu
Mycoplasmas by Shmuel Razin
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Mycoplasma infections
www.emedicine.medscape.com
www.wikipedia.com
Editor's Notes
Introduction:
Nocard and Roux: isolated first member of mycoplasma in 1898 in bovine pleuropneumonia
Old name : pleuropneumonia like organisms [PPLO]
The coccus is the basic form of all mycoplasmas in culture.
The diameter of the smallest coccus capable of reproduction is about 300 nm.
In most mycoplasma cultures, elongated or filamentous forms (up to 100 μm long and about 0.4 μm thick) also occur.
The filaments tend to produce truly branched mycelioid structures, hence the name mycoplasma (myces, a fungus; plasma, a form).
Mycoplasmas reproduce by binary fission, but cytoplasmic division frequently may lag behind genome replication, resulting in formation of multinuclear filaments
In USA, M. pneumoniae causes approximately 20% of community-acquired pneumonias that require hospitalization and probably an even greater proportion of those that do not require hospitalization. M pneumoniae may exist endemically in large urban areas. Disease tends to not be seasonal, except for a slight increase in late summer and early fall.
M .pneumoniae infections occur both endemically and in cyclic epidemics in Japan and several European countries, similar to what occurs in the United States. Less information is available for tropical or polar countries; however, based on seroprevalence studies, the disease also occurs in these regions, suggesting that climate and geography are not important determinants in the epidemiology of M. pneumoniae infections.