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This document summarizes key concepts around evolution of populations including genes and variation, evolution as genetic change, and the process of speciation. It discusses Darwin's ideas, genetic variation through mutations and gene shuffling, how natural selection can lead to changes in allele frequencies and evolution, and the roles of genetic drift, genetic equilibrium, reproductive isolation, and speciation through founders arriving, separation of populations, changes in gene pools, and reproductive isolation.
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This document outlines the key concepts related to reproduction that students are expected to understand for the Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry exam. It covers asexual and sexual reproduction in both plants and humans. For sexual reproduction, it discusses the structures and functions of reproductive systems, gamete formation and fertilization. It also addresses pregnancy and birth, hormones, birth control methods, and sexually transmitted infections. The goal is for students to understand these essential reproductive processes at a basic level.
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This document summarizes the molecular mechanisms of sex determination in Drosophila and humans. In Drosophila, sex is determined by the ratio of X chromosomes to autosomes (X:A ratio). A ratio greater than 1 leads to female development, while a ratio of less than 1 leads to male development. In humans, the presence of the SRY gene on the Y chromosome leads to testis development and a male phenotype, while its absence leads to ovarian development and a female phenotype. Key genes involved include Sxl, tra, and dsx in Drosophila, and SRY, Sox9, and FGF9 in humans. The document provides details on how these genes regulate downstream targets to control sexual differentiation in both organisms.
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1. Genetic instructions are passed from parents to offspring through genes located on chromosomes. These genes control traits and are inherited in pairs, one from each parent.
2. Some genes are dominant and will be expressed even if one recessive gene is present, while recessive genes only express when two are present. Dominant traits are represented by capital letters and recessive by lowercase.
3. Hybrid organisms have one dominant and one recessive gene, while purebred have two of the same. Incomplete dominance results in a blending of traits rather than one being dominant.
Sex determination in plants
1) Sex in plants refers to the male and female parts in flowers. Sex determination is the process by which plants develop as male or female.
2) There are several mechanisms of sex determination in plants, including environmental factors (temperature, light), chromosomes, and genes.
3) Chromosomal sex determination can involve homomorphic (identical) sex chromosomes or heteromorphic (different sized) sex chromosomes. Many plant species use one of these chromosomal mechanisms to determine sex.
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This theory was proposed by a Drosophilist Calvin Blackman Bridges in 1921.
This theory fully explains
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Femaleness -X chromosomes.
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1. Genetic instructions are passed from parents to offspring through genes located on chromosomes. These genes control traits and are inherited in pairs, one from each parent.
2. Some genes are dominant and will be expressed even if one recessive gene is present, while recessive genes only express when two are present. Dominant traits are represented by capital letters and recessive by lowercase.
3. Hybrid organisms have one dominant and one recessive gene, while purebred have two of the same. Incomplete dominance results in a blending of traits rather than one being dominant.
Sex determination in plants
1) Sex in plants refers to the male and female parts in flowers. Sex determination is the process by which plants develop as male or female.
2) There are several mechanisms of sex determination in plants, including environmental factors (temperature, light), chromosomes, and genes.
3) Chromosomal sex determination can involve homomorphic (identical) sex chromosomes or heteromorphic (different sized) sex chromosomes. Many plant species use one of these chromosomal mechanisms to determine sex.
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توضیح وراثت به طور کلی و گسترده در دهه 1800، و به طور مشخص فرضیه "مخلوط شدن" مورد پسند دانشمندان و زیست شناسان عصر خود بود. براساس این ایده، مواد ژنتیکی توسط والدین و درست همان طور که رنگ های آبی و زرد برای تبدیل شدن به رنگ سبز ترکیب میشوند، مخلوط میشدند. البته این فرضیه توضیح نمیداد که چگونه صفات پس از کنار رفتن یک نسل دوباره در نسل بعدی ظاهر میشوند. یک گزینه جایگزین برای مدل مخلوط شدن مواد ژنتیکی، فرضیه وراثت "ذرات معلق" است یا همان ایده ژن. در این مدل، والدین واحدهای موروثی به نام ژنها را که هویت جداگانه خود را در فرزندان حفظ می کنند، منتقل میکنند. گریگور مندل راهبی بود كه سازوكار ذرهای این نوع وارثت را با استفاده از گیاه نخود فرنگی به اثبات رساند.
The explanation of heredity most widely in favor during the 1800s was the “blending” hypothesis, the idea that genetic material contributed by the two parents, mixes just as blue and yellow paints blend to make green. The blending hypothesis failed to explain how traits can reappear after they’ve skipped a generation. An alternative to the blending model is a “particulate” hypothesis of inheritance: the gene idea. In this model, parents pass on discrete heritable units—genes— that retain their separate identities in offspring. Gregor Mendel was the monk who documented a particulate mechanism for this form of inheritance using pea plants.
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1. Gregor Mendel conducted breeding experiments with pea plants in the 1860s to study inheritance patterns of traits. Through his experiments, he discovered three laws of inheritance: the law of dominance, the law of segregation, and the law of independent assortment.
2. Mendel's experiments showed that factors (now known as genes) are passed unchanged from parents to offspring, and that inherited traits are determined by alternative versions (alleles) of these factors.
3. Mendel's laws explain inheritance of human traits and diseases such as cystic fibrosis, which follows a recessive pattern of inheritance where both parents must carry the recessive allele for a child to be affected.
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This document discusses sex determination and sex expression in animals. It defines key terms like sex chromosomes, autosomes, and allosomes. It describes four main mechanisms of sex determination: sex characters, chromosomal sex determination, monogenic sex determination, and environmental sex determination. For chromosomal sex determination, it provides details on the XX-XY, XX-XO, XO-XX, and ZW-ZZ systems. It also discusses genic balance theory and sex mosaicism in Drosophila.
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Genetics is the study of genes, heredity, and genetic variation. Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants in the 1800s and established the principles of inheritance, including dominance, segregation, and independent assortment. His work showed that traits are passed from parents to offspring through discrete units called genes. Monohybrid and dihybrid crosses examine the inheritance of one or two traits and can be represented using Punnett squares. Mendel's principles form the basis of modern genetics.
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Pedigree analysis is an important tool for studying human inherited diseases. Pedigrees make relationships within families easier to visualize, especially in large families. They are used to determine the mode of inheritance, such as dominant, recessive, X-linked, etc. The document then discusses why pedigrees are used for humans instead of other methods due to small family sizes and uncontrolled matings in humans. It provides examples of different modes of inheritance and discusses analyzing dominant and recessive pedigrees to determine genotypes.
sex determination
Sex determination is the process by which an organism develops as male or female. It can be identified by morphological, anatomical and physiological characteristics. Historically it was determined based on primary and secondary sex characteristics, but scientific study began after the discovery of sex chromosomes in 1902. There are two main theories of sex determination - genetic theories involving sex chromosomes and physiological theories related to metabolic differences. In most species, including humans, the presence of two X chromosomes determines female development while one X and one Y chromosome determines male development.
Sex linked and quantitative inheritance
This document discusses various modes of inheritance including sex-linked, sex-influenced, sex-limited, quantitative, and epistasis. It provides examples of X-linked traits like color blindness, hemophilia, and muscular dystrophy. It also describes quantitative inheritance being controlled by multiple genes and influenced by factors like dominance, additive effects, and epistasis. Quantitative trait loci are defined as the chromosomal positions where genes affecting quantitative traits are located.
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1. Mendel conducted breeding experiments with pea plants over seven years to test his particulate hypothesis of inheritance. He found that traits are passed from parents to offspring as distinct factors, now called genes.
2. Mendel discovered that traits can be dominant or recessive, and that alleles segregate independently during gamete formation according to his laws of inheritance.
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13 - Mendel and the Gene Idea
توضیح وراثت به طور کلی و گسترده در دهه 1800، و به طور مشخص فرضیه "مخلوط شدن" مورد پسند دانشمندان و زیست شناسان عصر خود بود. براساس این ایده، مواد ژنتیکی توسط والدین و درست همان طور که رنگ های آبی و زرد برای تبدیل شدن به رنگ سبز ترکیب میشوند، مخلوط میشدند. البته این فرضیه توضیح نمیداد که چگونه صفات پس از کنار رفتن یک نسل دوباره در نسل بعدی ظاهر میشوند. یک گزینه جایگزین برای مدل مخلوط شدن مواد ژنتیکی، فرضیه وراثت "ذرات معلق" است یا همان ایده ژن. در این مدل، والدین واحدهای موروثی به نام ژنها را که هویت جداگانه خود را در فرزندان حفظ می کنند، منتقل میکنند. گریگور مندل راهبی بود كه سازوكار ذرهای این نوع وارثت را با استفاده از گیاه نخود فرنگی به اثبات رساند.
The explanation of heredity most widely in favor during the 1800s was the “blending” hypothesis, the idea that genetic material contributed by the two parents, mixes just as blue and yellow paints blend to make green. The blending hypothesis failed to explain how traits can reappear after they’ve skipped a generation. An alternative to the blending model is a “particulate” hypothesis of inheritance: the gene idea. In this model, parents pass on discrete heritable units—genes— that retain their separate identities in offspring. Gregor Mendel was the monk who documented a particulate mechanism for this form of inheritance using pea plants.
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Reproduction through asexual or sexual means is essential for species survival. Asexual reproduction involves a single parent and results in offspring that are genetically identical clones, while sexual reproduction requires two parents and produces offspring with genetic variation by combining the parents' genes. The main types of asexual reproduction are binary fission, budding, regeneration, and mitosis. Sexual reproduction occurs through the fusion of egg and sperm cells during fertilization.
Reproduction notes
Sexual reproduction involves a male producing sperm cells containing 23 unpaired chromosomes and a female producing egg cells also containing 23 unpaired chromosomes. When a sperm cell fertilizes an egg cell, they combine to form a zygote containing 46 total chromosomes or 23 chromosome pairs from each parent. This single cell then divides through mitosis to form a fetus or baby made of trillions of cells, with 23 chromosomes from the father and 23 from the mother, increasing genetic variation. Asexual reproduction requires only one parent and produces offspring identical to the parent, without increasing genetic diversity.
Sex chromosomes1
Females have two X chromosomes and are homogametic, while males have one X and one Y chromosome and are heterogametic. During meiosis, females produce gametes containing one X chromosome, while males produce half X-containing and half Y-containing gametes. Fertilization results in XX females from a female X gamete and either male gamete, and XY males from a male Y gamete combined with a female X gamete. Several conditions can result from abnormalities in sex chromosome number, such as Turner syndrome occurring from XO, and Klinefelter syndrome from XXY.
XX-XY sex determination in plants
XX-XY sex determination is one of the chromosomal sex determination where sperm determines the sex of the progeny. This type of sex determination is seen in plants also. MELANDRIUM ALBUM is one.
Unit v patterns ofinheritance mendelian inheritance
1. Gregor Mendel conducted breeding experiments with pea plants in the 1860s to study inheritance patterns of traits. Through his experiments, he discovered three laws of inheritance: the law of dominance, the law of segregation, and the law of independent assortment.
2. Mendel's experiments showed that factors (now known as genes) are passed unchanged from parents to offspring, and that inherited traits are determined by alternative versions (alleles) of these factors.
3. Mendel's laws explain inheritance of human traits and diseases such as cystic fibrosis, which follows a recessive pattern of inheritance where both parents must carry the recessive allele for a child to be affected.
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This document discusses sex determination and sex expression in animals. It defines key terms like sex chromosomes, autosomes, and allosomes. It describes four main mechanisms of sex determination: sex characters, chromosomal sex determination, monogenic sex determination, and environmental sex determination. For chromosomal sex determination, it provides details on the XX-XY, XX-XO, XO-XX, and ZW-ZZ systems. It also discusses genic balance theory and sex mosaicism in Drosophila.
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pedigree analysis
Pedigree analysis is an important tool for studying human inherited diseases. Pedigrees make relationships within families easier to visualize, especially in large families. They are used to determine the mode of inheritance, such as dominant, recessive, X-linked, etc. The document then discusses why pedigrees are used for humans instead of other methods due to small family sizes and uncontrolled matings in humans. It provides examples of different modes of inheritance and discusses analyzing dominant and recessive pedigrees to determine genotypes.
sex determination
Sex determination is the process by which an organism develops as male or female. It can be identified by morphological, anatomical and physiological characteristics. Historically it was determined based on primary and secondary sex characteristics, but scientific study began after the discovery of sex chromosomes in 1902. There are two main theories of sex determination - genetic theories involving sex chromosomes and physiological theories related to metabolic differences. In most species, including humans, the presence of two X chromosomes determines female development while one X and one Y chromosome determines male development.
Sex linked and quantitative inheritance
This document discusses various modes of inheritance including sex-linked, sex-influenced, sex-limited, quantitative, and epistasis. It provides examples of X-linked traits like color blindness, hemophilia, and muscular dystrophy. It also describes quantitative inheritance being controlled by multiple genes and influenced by factors like dominance, additive effects, and epistasis. Quantitative trait loci are defined as the chromosomal positions where genes affecting quantitative traits are located.
Patterns of inheritance mendelian inheritance
1. Mendel conducted breeding experiments with pea plants over seven years to test his particulate hypothesis of inheritance. He found that traits are passed from parents to offspring as distinct factors, now called genes.
2. Mendel discovered that traits can be dominant or recessive, and that alleles segregate independently during gamete formation according to his laws of inheritance.
3. Mendel's work established the foundations of classical genetics and showed that heredity follows predictable statistical patterns. His principles help explain the inheritance of human traits and disorders like cystic fibrosis.
Sex determination in papaya
This document discusses sex determination in the plant species papaya. It describes how papaya can have three sex forms - male, female, and hermaphrodite. The genetics of papaya sex determination have been studied and several hypotheses have been proposed, including it being controlled by a single gene with three alleles or a group of linked genes on the sex chromosome. Current research indicates sex is determined by a pair of primitive sex chromosomes, with two slightly different Y chromosomes controlling male vs hermaphrodite sex. Molecular genetics techniques are helping researchers further understand the genes and pathways involved in papaya sex determination.
Sex Determination 8
The document discusses sex determination and how mutations can affect it. It explains that sex is determined by the combination of X and Y chromosomes, with females having two X chromosomes and males having an X and Y. Mutations can occur spontaneously during DNA replication or be caused by external mutagens like chemicals and radiation, and can result in changes like base substitutions or deletions. These mutations can be passed down to offspring and contribute to genetic variation in populations over generations through evolution.
GENETICS, MENDELIAN & NON-MENDELIAN TRAITS
Genetics Basic Terminology, Dominance, Incomplete Dominance, C0-dominance, Mendel's Laws, Blood Group, Linkage, Morgan Chromosomal Theory, Drosophila
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This pdf comprises of Basic of Genetics: Purpose: To convey that “Genetics is to biology what Newton’s
laws are to Physical Sciences”. Mendel’s laws, Concept of segregation and
independent assortment. Concept of allele. Gene mapping, Gene
interaction, Epistasis. Meiosis and Mitosis be taught as a part of
genetics. Emphasis to be give not to the mechanics of cell division nor the
phases but how genetic material passes from parent to offspring. Concepts
of recessiveness and dominance. Concept of mapping of phenotype to
genes. Discuss about the single gene disorders in humans. Discuss the
concept of complementation using human genetics.
Reproduction 101110032348-phpapp02
This document discusses reproduction in various forms of life. It describes asexual reproduction, which does not involve sex cells and occurs in many lower organisms through fission, fragmentation, budding, and other means. Sexual reproduction is also discussed, which involves the union of sperm and egg to create genetic variation in offspring. Examples of both asexual and sexual reproduction are provided for plants, fungi, and other organisms. The stages of sexual reproduction in flowering plants are outlined, from gamete formation through pollination, fertilization, fruit and seed development, and seed germination.
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Gregor Mendel studied heredity through pea plant experiments in the mid-1800s. He found that traits are determined by discrete units called genes that are passed from parents to offspring. During gamete formation, alleles for each gene separate or segregate from each other so that offspring have a random combination of alleles from each parent, allowing new traits to emerge through dominance or hybridization.
X chromosome inactivation ambaye, s. & mujahed, h.
This document summarizes the molecular mechanisms and genetic consequences of X-chromosome inactivation. It describes how females equalize X-linked gene expression through randomly inactivating one of the two X chromosomes in their cells. The inactivation process is initiated by the XIST gene, which codes for a non-coding RNA that coats the inactive X and recruits chromatin modifiers to silence it. This results in cellular mosaicism in females and protects them from X-linked mutations while equalizing dosage between males and females.
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The endocrine system communicates regulatory messages within the body using hormones, which are chemical signals secreted into the bloodstream. It works alongside the nervous system, with some chemicals serving as both hormones and neurotransmitters. Hormones bind to receptors to elicit physiological responses through feedback loops.
Major glands of the endocrine system include the hypothalamus and pituitary gland in the brain, which regulate other glands. The thyroid and parathyroid glands control calcium and metabolism. The pancreas regulates blood sugar through insulin and glucagon. The adrenal glands and gonads produce hormones for stress response and sexual development
11 u mutations
Genetic variation within species occurs due to mutations. Mutations can happen in somatic cells or germ cells. Germ cell mutations are passed to offspring and can create new variations within a population. Mutations may be harmful, neutral, or beneficial to an organism's survival and ability to reproduce. Beneficial mutations are more likely to proliferate in future generations as those organisms have a selective advantage. This leads to the adaptation of a species over time through natural selection.
4chapter36
The skeletal system supports the body, protects internal organs, provides movement, and stores minerals. There are three types of joints: immovable, slightly movable, and freely movable. The muscular system contains three types of muscle tissue and muscles contract to allow movement. The integumentary system is made up of skin, which acts as a barrier, protects against injury, regulates temperature, removes waste, and protects against sun radiation.
IB Biology Evolution 2015
This document discusses evidence that supports the theory of evolution, including:
- The fossil record provides evidence of gradual changes in species over millions of years as seen in successive rock layers.
- Similarities in homologous structures across species, like pentadactyl limbs, provide evidence of common ancestry and gradual divergence over time through processes like adaptive radiation.
- Artificial selection through selective breeding demonstrates how organisms can evolve rapidly in response to environmental pressures like those in nature.
4 chromosomal aberrations ks
This document discusses different types of chromosomal aberrations including numerical and structural abnormalities. Numerical abnormalities refer to changes in the number of chromosomes such as aneuploidy (extra or missing chromosome) and polyploidy (multiple sets of chromosomes). Structural abnormalities result from breaks in chromosomes and include deletions, insertions, inversions, translocations, and ring chromosomes. Specific chromosomal disorders caused by numerical and structural changes like Down syndrome, Turner syndrome, and Klinefelter syndrome are also described.
Chromosomal aberrations
Chromosomal aberrations disrupt the normal chromosomal content of cells and are a major cause of genetic conditions in humans. Some examples described are Cri du chat syndrome which is caused by a deletion on chromosome 5 and is characterized by a cat-like cry in infants. Down syndrome is caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21 and includes developmental delays. Edward's syndrome involves an extra chromosome 18 and causes serious health issues. Several other syndromes are described that involve deletions or additions of sex chromosomes and can cause developmental delays, physical abnormalities and fertility issues.
Variation & Evolution
This document discusses variation and evolution. It explains that variation exists between individuals and can be continuous or discontinuous. Variation can be influenced by genes, environment, or both. Evolution occurs as allele frequencies change over generations through natural selection and genetic drift. Speciation may occur when reproductive isolation develops between populations.
Chromosomal Aberration
This document discusses chromosomal aberrations, including definitions, types, and examples. It covers:
- Karyotyping and identifying chromosomes by size, centromere location, and banding patterns.
- Types of chromosomal abnormalities like aneuploidy, polyploidy, deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations.
- Specific chromosomal disorders in humans caused by abnormalities, such as Down syndrome, Turner syndrome, and Klinefelter syndrome.
The effects of chromosomal aberrations can range from minor to severe, depending on the type and extent of the genetic material affected. Identification and classification of aberrations provides insight into associated disease states and
Chromosomal Aberrations
Chromosomal aberrations can be numerical, involving a change in chromosome number, or structural, involving a change in chromosome structure. Common numerical aberrations include monosomy, such as Turner syndrome caused by X monosomy, and trisomy, such as Down syndrome caused by trisomy 21. Structural aberrations include translocations, where genetic material transfers between chromosomes, and deletions or duplications of parts of chromosomes. These aberrations can have varying effects on development and health depending on the chromosomes and genetic material involved.
Chromosomal abnormalities
This document discusses chromosomal abnormalities, including both numerical and structural abnormalities. It provides examples of various chromosomal abnormalities such as trisomy 21 (Down syndrome), trisomy 18, trisomy 13 (Patau syndrome), Turner syndrome, and Klinefelter syndrome. It also discusses methods used in cytogenetic analysis such as karyotyping, G-banding, fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH), and spectral karyotyping. Overall, the document provides an overview of common chromosomal abnormalities and the techniques used to identify them.
Gene mutations ppt
Gene mutations can occur when there is a change in the DNA code, such as a substitution, insertion, or deletion of nucleotide bases. Substitution mutations, where one base is swapped for another, typically have the smallest effect since only one amino acid may change. Insertion and deletion mutations, which add or remove bases, can have larger effects by disrupting the reading frame of the entire DNA sequence. An example is sickle cell anemia, a substitution mutation that causes red blood cells to take on a sickle shape.
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Population genetics
This document summarizes key concepts in population genetics, including:
- Detecting genetic variation such as SNPs and microsatellites using DNA sequencing and PCR
- Haplotypes, which are combinations of alleles on the same chromosome, and how they can be used to trace human origins
- The Hardy-Weinberg law and how it relates allele and genotype frequencies in a population
- Factors that modulate genetic variation, such as mutation, migration, genetic drift, and natural selection
- Examples of how these concepts are applied, such as in conservation genetics, calculating disease risks, DNA forensics, and ancestry tracing.
Population Genetics
Population genetics reconciled Darwin and Mendel's ideas by showing how natural selection could act on variation present in populations. The Hardy-Weinberg theorem describes genetic equilibrium in a population where allele frequencies remain constant between generations unless disrupted by factors like genetic drift, migration, non-random mating, mutation, or natural selection. These disruptions to equilibrium allow for microevolution and populations to change over time through natural selection acting on genetic variation.
Ap Chap 23 The Evolution Of Populations
Microevolution refers to changes in allele frequencies in a population over time. Genetic variation arises through mutations and sexual reproduction. Natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow can alter allele frequencies in populations. The founder effect is a type of genetic drift that can occur when a small group migrates and founds a new population, losing some genetic variation present in the original population. For example, certain genetic disorders are more common in Jewish and Amish communities due to the founder effect occurring in their small ancestral populations. [END SUMMARY]
MolloyPosterFall14
This study analyzed genetic variation in the ANNAT1 gene in populations of Arabidopsis lyrata from different soil types. Sequences were compared from individuals in two serpentine, one granitic, and one sandy population. Nucleotide diversity was higher across populations than within serpentine populations. Polymorphisms were found, including an amino acid change only present in serpentine populations, suggesting natural selection or genetic drift. The study aims to better understand genetic adaptation to serpentine soil.
Arushi arora
Population genetics is the study of the distribution and change in frequency of alleles within populations. It examines how processes like natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow, and mutation cause evolution in a population over time. The key concepts are:
1) Hardy-Weinberg law states that allele and genotype frequencies remain constant in a population with no evolutionary influences.
2) Variation within populations arises through migration, recombination, mutation, and gene flow.
3) Gene pools are sets of genes found in related species that can be used in crop breeding. They are divided into primary, secondary, and tertiary pools based on ease of gene transfer.
Gene flow
Mechanism of Gene Flow: Immigration and emigration, Hardy-Weinberg Theorem, Selection Pressure, Consequences of Gene Flow, Barriers to gene flow
Bio16 speciation
This document provides information about genetic variation and evolution. It discusses how genetic variation arises from mutations and gene shuffling during sexual reproduction. It also describes how natural selection and genetic drift can change allele frequencies in a population over generations, resulting in evolution. Key factors that can lead to the formation of new species like geographic isolation and reproductive isolation are also summarized. Studies on Darwin's finches provide evidence of natural selection shaping beak traits in response to environmental pressures like food availability.
ORIGIN OF SPECIES.pptx
This document discusses macroevolution and microevolution. Microevolution involves changes in allele frequencies within a population over a short time due to factors like mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, non-random mating, and natural selection. These small changes can accumulate over long periods to result in macroevolution, where new species, genera, and higher taxonomic groups emerge due to reproductive isolation and genetic divergence between populations. Macroevolution can occur through both allopatric speciation, where populations are geographically isolated, or sympatric speciation within overlapping populations.
05 population variation and selection
This document discusses population variation and selection. It provides an overview of key concepts:
1. Natural selection acts on individuals but only populations evolve over generations as allele frequencies change. This was shown using a population of finches where large-beaked birds survived a drought better.
2. Three mechanisms can cause changes in allele frequencies in a population: natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow. Natural selection is the only mechanism that causes adaptive evolution.
3. Genetic variation within populations is required for evolution. Variation comes from new mutations and recombination during sexual reproduction. The Hardy-Weinberg principle describes populations where allele frequencies remain constant without evolutionary influences.
Learning Objectives Define inheritance Define allele and trait Describe.docx
This document defines key genetics concepts and outlines learning objectives related to inheritance and evolution. It describes how DNA encodes genes, which determine physical traits. Genes are passed from parents to offspring, with dominant alleles usually determining visible traits. The Hardy-Weinberg principle states that allele frequencies in stable populations remain constant over time, but can change due to evolutionary forces like mutation, genetic drift or natural selection. The document introduces a simulation where students can observe inheritance and evolution by tracking allele frequencies in virtual "bug" populations over multiple generations.
Learning Objectives Define inheritance Define allele and trait Describe.docx
This document defines key genetics concepts and outlines learning objectives related to inheritance and evolution. It describes how DNA encodes genes, which determine physical traits. Genes are passed from parents to offspring, with dominant alleles usually determining visible traits. In stable populations, allele frequencies remain constant due to random mating and lack of evolutionary pressures. However, mutations, genetic drift, gene flow and natural selection can drive changes in allele frequencies over generations. The document introduces a simulation model where students can observe inheritance and evolution by tracking the rim color of "model bugs" over multiple generations.
Hardy – weinberg law
This document provides an overview of the Hardy-Weinberg law in population genetics. It defines the Hardy-Weinberg principle as stating that allele and genotype frequencies will remain constant from one generation to the next in a population where no evolutionary influences are present. The history of the law developed from the work of Hardy in 1908 and Weinberg in 1908 is discussed. The key assumptions required for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium - including random mating, large population size, no natural selection or gene flow - are outlined. Equations for calculating expected genotype frequencies based on allele frequencies are presented along with an example calculation.
Ap Chapter 21
The document summarizes key aspects of genomics and the human genome project. It discusses that the human genome project mapped the human genome through linkage mapping, physical mapping, and DNA sequencing. It was completed in 2003 and found that humans have around 20,000 genes and repetitive non-coding DNA makes up around half the genome. Transposons and retrotransposons are types of repetitive DNA that can move locations within genomes.
Population Genetics
This document provides an overview of population genetics concepts including allele frequencies, genotype frequencies, the Hardy-Weinberg law, and the role of natural selection through mutation and genetic drift. It discusses key topics such as allele and gene frequency calculations, random mating populations, Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, and how natural selection and other evolutionary forces can cause changes in allele frequencies over generations through processes like migration, mutation, genetic drift, and differential reproduction of genotypes.
Mating systems (population genetics)
1. There are two main types of mating systems - random mating and non-random mating. Random mating involves each gamete having an equal chance to unite with any other gamete. Non-random mating includes assortative mating, where similar individuals mate, and disassortative mating, where dissimilar individuals mate.
2. Sewall Wright first proposed five mating systems in 1921 - random mating, genetic assortative mating, genetic disassortative mating, phenotypic assortative mating, and phenotypic disassortative mating. These systems influence the variation, homozygosity, and other genetic characteristics of populations over generations.
3. Random mating maintains diversity but can increase homozygosity in small populations.
Biology - Chp 16 - Evolution Of Populations - Powerpoint
This document summarizes key concepts from a chapter on evolution of populations, including:
1) Genetic variation arises from mutations and genetic shuffling during sexual reproduction, providing raw materials for natural selection.
2) Natural selection can lead to changes in allele frequencies over generations, resulting in evolutionary adaptation.
3) Reproductive isolation of populations through mechanisms like geographic barriers can lead to the formation of new species over long periods of time, as seen with Darwin's finches in the Galapagos Islands.
Gene Flow.pptx
This document provides an overview of gene flow in plants. It discusses how gene flow occurs through both pollen and seed dispersal during the plant life cycle. There are direct and indirect methods for measuring contemporary and historical gene flow rates. Direct estimates find most pollen and seeds disperse close to the source, while indirect estimates using genetic data suggest higher rates of gene flow between more distant populations. Gene flow plays both conservative and creative roles in evolution by preventing genetic drift between populations and enabling the spread of beneficial mutations. The document also discusses applications of gene flow knowledge such as transgene escape from crop plants into wild relatives.
Hardy weinberg equilibrium
This document provides an introduction to population genetics concepts including:
- What is a population and how it relates to evolution
- Key terms like gene pool, allele frequency, and genotype frequency
- Mendelian populations and how they interact
- Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium and how evolutionary forces can affect equilibrium
- Factors like mutation, migration, non-random mating, natural selection, and genetic drift that influence population genetics
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Learning Objectives Define inheritance Define allele and trait Describe.docx
Learning Objectives Define inheritance Define allele and trait Describe.docx
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Biology - Chp 16 - Evolution Of Populations - Powerpoint
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5) Link
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3chapter36
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6 Chapter16
- 1. Chp.16 - Evolution of Populations 16-1 Genes and Variation 16-2 Evolution as Genetic Change 16-3 The Process of Speciation By: Ramtin N. & Dassel Pak