3chapter16
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The document discusses genetic variation and evolution. It defines key terms like gene pool, relative frequency, and sources of genetic variation such as mutation and gene shuffling. It also describes how natural selection can affect single-gene and polygenic traits through changing allele frequencies or affecting phenotype distributions in directional, stabilizing, or disruptive ways. Other topics covered include types of selection, diagrams of selection, genetic drift, founder effects, the process of speciation, and an example of speciation in Darwin's finches.
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The document discusses several genetic concepts:
1) Genetic drift describes random fluctuations in gene variants (alleles) in a population over time.
2) When a small group becomes isolated from a larger population, the new population's gene pool may differ due to the bottleneck effect.
3) Natural selection can maintain genetic variation through balancing selection mechanisms like heterozygote advantage and frequency-dependent selection.
Changes in gene frequency
Gene frequency refers to the proportion of a particular allele within a population at a given locus. It can change over time due to various factors like mutation, migration, genetic drift, non-random mating, and selection. Genetic drift occurs when allele frequencies change due to chance rather than evolutionary influences, and can be seen through bottle neck effects when population sizes drastically decrease, or founder effects when new populations are established. Migration also impacts gene frequencies as individuals move between populations, carrying alleles with them. Mutation introduces new alleles, while selection influences which alleles increase or decrease in frequency based on their effects on fitness.
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This document discusses genetic drift, which refers to random changes in allele frequencies between generations independent of natural selection. Genetic drift has a greater impact in small populations and can lead to the loss or fixation of alleles. The bottleneck effect and founder effect are examples where genetic drift in small populations causes allele frequency changes compared to the original larger population. The neutral theory of evolution proposes that most genetic variation arises from the accumulation of neutral mutations through genetic drift rather than natural selection.
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Genetic drift is random changes in gene frequencies that occur by chance in small populations rather than through natural selection. According to Sewall Wright's theory of genetic drift, gene frequencies in small populations can change randomly due to sampling errors, potentially leading one allele to become fixed and another to be lost over time. Evidence from experiments on banded and bandless snail populations supports genetic drift operating in small populations by causing random changes in allele frequencies. Genetic drift plays a role in evolution by causing variations between isolated populations and possibly leading to the emergence of new species.
Population genetics
Population genetics considers the distribution and change in allele frequencies in a population over generations. Genetic change occurs through mutations, gene flow between populations due to migration, genetic drift when small populations become isolated, and natural selection which influences which genotypes leave more offspring. Tracking allele frequencies in populations can provide information about evolution and disease risk.
Drift
The document discusses the concept of genetic drift, which is the change in allele frequencies over time due to random chance rather than natural selection. It provides examples of genetic drift occurring through bottlenecks, founder effects, and stochastic sampling in populations that have experienced reductions in size. The document then simulates genetic drift through a "Haploid Sex with Chocolate" activity, where students exchange M&M "gametes" over multiple generations to model how drift can change allele frequencies randomly over time in a finite population.
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Biological evolution occurs through four main mechanisms: natural selection, genetic drift, biased mutation, and gene flow. Natural selection involves variation in traits, inheritance of traits, a high population growth rate, and differential survival and reproduction based on traits suited for the environment. Genetic drift is the random changes in genetic makeup between generations due to chance rather than adaptation. Biased mutation refers to certain types of mutations occurring more frequently in certain locations in DNA. Gene flow is the exchange of alleles between populations through migration and reproduction.
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The document discusses several genetic concepts:
1) Genetic drift describes random fluctuations in gene variants (alleles) in a population over time.
2) When a small group becomes isolated from a larger population, the new population's gene pool may differ due to the bottleneck effect.
3) Natural selection can maintain genetic variation through balancing selection mechanisms like heterozygote advantage and frequency-dependent selection.
Changes in gene frequency
Gene frequency refers to the proportion of a particular allele within a population at a given locus. It can change over time due to various factors like mutation, migration, genetic drift, non-random mating, and selection. Genetic drift occurs when allele frequencies change due to chance rather than evolutionary influences, and can be seen through bottle neck effects when population sizes drastically decrease, or founder effects when new populations are established. Migration also impacts gene frequencies as individuals move between populations, carrying alleles with them. Mutation introduces new alleles, while selection influences which alleles increase or decrease in frequency based on their effects on fitness.
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This document discusses genetic drift, which refers to random changes in allele frequencies between generations independent of natural selection. Genetic drift has a greater impact in small populations and can lead to the loss or fixation of alleles. The bottleneck effect and founder effect are examples where genetic drift in small populations causes allele frequency changes compared to the original larger population. The neutral theory of evolution proposes that most genetic variation arises from the accumulation of neutral mutations through genetic drift rather than natural selection.
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Population genetics considers the distribution and change in allele frequencies in a population over generations. Genetic change occurs through mutations, gene flow between populations due to migration, genetic drift when small populations become isolated, and natural selection which influences which genotypes leave more offspring. Tracking allele frequencies in populations can provide information about evolution and disease risk.
Drift
The document discusses the concept of genetic drift, which is the change in allele frequencies over time due to random chance rather than natural selection. It provides examples of genetic drift occurring through bottlenecks, founder effects, and stochastic sampling in populations that have experienced reductions in size. The document then simulates genetic drift through a "Haploid Sex with Chocolate" activity, where students exchange M&M "gametes" over multiple generations to model how drift can change allele frequencies randomly over time in a finite population.
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Biological evolution occurs through four main mechanisms: natural selection, genetic drift, biased mutation, and gene flow. Natural selection involves variation in traits, inheritance of traits, a high population growth rate, and differential survival and reproduction based on traits suited for the environment. Genetic drift is the random changes in genetic makeup between generations due to chance rather than adaptation. Biased mutation refers to certain types of mutations occurring more frequently in certain locations in DNA. Gene flow is the exchange of alleles between populations through migration and reproduction.
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The document discusses several key concepts related to evolution and gene frequencies:
1. Evolution occurs through genetic changes being passed down between generations within a population. The Hardy-Weinberg theorem states that allele frequencies will remain stable under certain assumptions, such as large population size and no migration, mutation, or selection.
2. Genetic drift, founder and bottleneck effects, and low population size can reduce genetic variation within a population. Gene flow between populations impacts allele frequencies.
3. Mutation introduces new variations and increases genetic diversity over time. Natural selection leads to changes in allele frequencies if some phenotypes are more successful at reproducing. Selection can be directional, disruptive, or stabilizing.
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This document provides an overview of a lesson on evolution as genetic change in populations. It discusses how natural selection can affect single-gene and polygenic traits through directional, stabilizing, and disruptive selection. Genetic drift is described as random changes in allele frequency in small populations due to chance or events like bottlenecks. The conditions required to maintain genetic equilibrium according to Hardy-Weinberg principles are also outlined.
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Genetic drift refers to changes in allele frequencies in a population due to random fluctuations. Over many generations, genetic drift usually results in the loss or fixation of an allele. The rate of genetic drift depends on population size, with smaller populations experiencing greater drift due to chance fluctuations. Genetic drift can lead to loss of genetic variation and influence how populations diverge genetically over time.
Mutation and genetic drift
1. Mutation and genetic drift are mechanisms of evolution that introduce genetic variation. Mutation occurs randomly through errors in DNA replication and creates new variations. Genetic drift is changes in allele frequencies that occur by chance in small populations.
2. The bottleneck effect occurs when a catastrophe reduces population size, leaving only a small, random group of survivors with non-representative genetics. Founder effect happens when a small group establishes a new isolated population, resulting in allele frequency changes through genetic drift.
3. Both genetic drift mechanisms reduce genetic variation over time, making populations vulnerable if environments change. Examples are bearded vultures hunted to near extinction and the Amish founding population with increased Ellis-van Creveld syndrome
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Mutations and genetic recombination introduce genetic variation within populations. Natural selection acts on this variation, favoring traits that increase reproductive success. Over generations, this leads to adaptation and evolution of populations as allele frequencies change. Genetic drift also causes random changes in allele frequencies, especially in small, isolated populations. Gene flow moves alleles between populations through migration.
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Variation among the organisms induces organic evolution. There are different reasons causing variation due to change in gene frequency.
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Mutation, non-random mating, assortative mating, and natural selection can all affect allele changes in frequency in a population.
Mutation is the permanent alteration of DNA sequences that can occur due to errors during DNA replication or damage. It can result in changes to gene function. Non-random mating occurs when individuals select mates non-randomly, altering gene frequencies. Assortative mating is when individuals mate with others of similar phenotypes more than expected by chance, which can increase genetic relatedness. Natural selection is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals based on phenotype, driving changes in allele frequencies over generations.
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The document provides an overview of genetic drift, which is the random changes in gene frequencies of a population that are not due to adaptive selection. It discusses how genetic drift, especially bottleneck effects and founder effects, can reduce genetic variation in a population through random chance. A bottleneck effect occurs when a large population is drastically reduced in size, such as through a natural disaster. A founder effect happens during colonization of a new habitat by only a few individuals. Both of these effects reduce genetic variation and can lead to changes in a population over time through genetic drift alone rather than adaptive selection. Examples of both effects are provided.
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The document discusses several key concepts related to evolution and gene frequencies:
1. Evolution occurs through genetic changes being passed down between generations within a population. The Hardy-Weinberg theorem states that allele frequencies will remain stable under certain assumptions, such as large population size and no migration, mutation, or selection.
2. Genetic drift, founder and bottleneck effects, and low population size can reduce genetic variation within a population. Gene flow between populations impacts allele frequencies.
3. Mutation introduces new variations and increases genetic diversity over time. Natural selection leads to changes in allele frequencies if some phenotypes are more successful at reproducing. Selection can be directional, disruptive, or stabilizing.
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Five factors drive evolution in populations: mutation, migration, genetic drift, natural selection, and nonrandom mating. Genetic drift is the change in allele frequencies that occurs due to random sampling error in small populations. It can cause alleles to be lost or fixed in a population by chance alone, independent of adaptive effects. The rate of genetic drift is influenced by population size, with smaller populations experiencing stronger drift effects due to increased sampling error. Effective population size is often much smaller than actual population size due to factors like unequal sex ratios. Genetic drift reduces genetic diversity over time and can cause maladaptive evolution if drift is stronger than selection.
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This document discusses how natural selection and genetic drift can cause evolution by changing allele frequencies in populations over time. It explains that natural selection may cause some alleles to become more common if they increase an individual's chances of survival and reproduction. Genetic drift is the random change in allele frequencies that can occur in small populations by chance. The document also describes the conditions required by the Hardy-Weinberg principle for a population to maintain genetic equilibrium and not evolve.
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This document provides an overview of a lesson on evolution as genetic change in populations. It discusses how natural selection can affect single-gene and polygenic traits through directional, stabilizing, and disruptive selection. Genetic drift is described as random changes in allele frequency in small populations due to chance or events like bottlenecks. The conditions required to maintain genetic equilibrium according to Hardy-Weinberg principles are also outlined.
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Genetic drift refers to changes in allele frequencies in a population due to random fluctuations. Over many generations, genetic drift usually results in the loss or fixation of an allele. The rate of genetic drift depends on population size, with smaller populations experiencing greater drift due to chance fluctuations. Genetic drift can lead to loss of genetic variation and influence how populations diverge genetically over time.
Mutation and genetic drift
1. Mutation and genetic drift are mechanisms of evolution that introduce genetic variation. Mutation occurs randomly through errors in DNA replication and creates new variations. Genetic drift is changes in allele frequencies that occur by chance in small populations.
2. The bottleneck effect occurs when a catastrophe reduces population size, leaving only a small, random group of survivors with non-representative genetics. Founder effect happens when a small group establishes a new isolated population, resulting in allele frequency changes through genetic drift.
3. Both genetic drift mechanisms reduce genetic variation over time, making populations vulnerable if environments change. Examples are bearded vultures hunted to near extinction and the Amish founding population with increased Ellis-van Creveld syndrome
Population genetics with qs
Population genetics is the study of genetic variation within populations. A population's gene pool contains all the alleles of all individuals. Under Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, allele frequencies remain constant between generations if there is no mutation, migration, genetic drift, or natural selection. Five agents cause evolution: mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, nonrandom mating, and natural selection, which is the only mechanism that leads to adaptation. Natural selection maintains genetic variation and can preserve polymorphisms through mechanisms like heterozygote advantage.
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This document discusses several evolutionary mechanisms: mutation, genetic drift, and natural selection. Mutation introduces heritable changes in DNA and is the ultimate source of genetic variation. Genetic drift is changes in allele frequencies that occur by chance, especially in small populations. It can reduce genetic variation over time. Natural selection leads to populations becoming locally adapted as individuals better suited to their environment leave more offspring.
Population genetics
Population genetics is a sub field of genetics that deals with genetic differences within and between populations, and is a part of Evolutionary biology.
Natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow
Mutations and genetic recombination introduce genetic variation within populations. Natural selection acts on this variation, favoring traits that increase reproductive success. Over generations, this leads to adaptation and evolution of populations as allele frequencies change. Genetic drift also causes random changes in allele frequencies, especially in small, isolated populations. Gene flow moves alleles between populations through migration.
Genetic drift
Genetic drift is a mechanism of evolution responsible for random changes in a gene pool through chance changes in allele frequencies in populations over time. It tends to have a stronger effect in smaller populations and can reduce genetic variation through allele losses. There are two types of genetic drift: bottleneck effect, which occurs after disasters reduce population size, and founder effect, which happens when new colonies are formed through migration.
Genetic drift
Genetic drift is a mechanism of evolution that causes changes in allele frequencies in a population due to random sampling of organisms. It is common in small populations and can cause some alleles to become more common or disappear entirely over time. There are two main types of genetic drift: the bottleneck effect, which occurs when a disaster reduces population size, and the founder effect, which happens when a group founds a new population. Both types can lead to new populations becoming genetically distinct from the original population and play a role in evolution and speciation.
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Hardy – weinberg law
This document provides an overview of the Hardy-Weinberg law in population genetics. It defines the Hardy-Weinberg principle as stating that allele and genotype frequencies will remain constant from one generation to the next in a population where no evolutionary influences are present. The history of the law developed from the work of Hardy in 1908 and Weinberg in 1908 is discussed. The key assumptions required for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium - including random mating, large population size, no natural selection or gene flow - are outlined. Equations for calculating expected genotype frequencies based on allele frequencies are presented along with an example calculation.
Intraspecific variation
Intraspecific variation refers to differences that occur within a species. Variation can be caused by both genetic and environmental factors. Genetic factors include differences in alleles that cause phenotypic variations like eye color. Environmental factors influence phenotypes as well, such as how temperature affects the fur color of Himalayan rabbits. Often variation is a combination of both genetic and environmental influences, such as how genetics and nutrition interact to determine a person's height. Genetic variation within and between populations can be measured to understand intraspecific variation.
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Variation among the organisms induces organic evolution. There are different reasons causing variation due to change in gene frequency.
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Mutation, non-random mating, assortative mating, and natural selection can all affect allele changes in frequency in a population.
Mutation is the permanent alteration of DNA sequences that can occur due to errors during DNA replication or damage. It can result in changes to gene function. Non-random mating occurs when individuals select mates non-randomly, altering gene frequencies. Assortative mating is when individuals mate with others of similar phenotypes more than expected by chance, which can increase genetic relatedness. Natural selection is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals based on phenotype, driving changes in allele frequencies over generations.
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Factors Affecting Allele Changes in Frequency: Mutation
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1) The document discusses factors that can initiate microevolutionary changes by altering gene frequencies in populations. These include mutation, gene flow, natural selection, non-random mating, and genetic drift.
2) Five conditions must be met for a population to maintain Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium: no mutation, random mating, no natural selection, large population size, and no gene flow. Deviations from any of these conditions can lead to evolutionary changes by changing allele and genotype frequencies over time.
3) Specific factors that can drive evolutionary changes include mutation, which introduces new variants; gene flow through migration; natural selection favoring certain genotypes; non-random mating patterns; and genetic drift through random processes in small populations
what is a natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow would two.pdf
what is a natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow? would two small, geographically
isolated populations in very different environments be likely to evolve in a similar way? explain.
Solution
natural selection is a process, by which organisam get better adaptation to enviroment for
survival and produce more offespring . another defination is process by which the forms of
organism in a population that are the best adapted to environment increase in frequency
relatively to less adapted forms over a number of generations.
this theory was given by Charles Darwin,natural selection is a comosite of all the force that cause
differential survival & diffrential reproduction among the genetic variant.natural selection is
nonrandom process by which biological traits become more or less common in population, there
genetic drift-the random change in allele frequencies caused by sampling error across
generations in final population is called genetic drift, drift can be major driving force for
changing alleles frequencies in small population , however the key element of genetic drift is that
which individuals survive and reproduce is random( unrelated to their phenotype and genotype).
drift cause fixation of alleles in population.
genetic drift is a random, directionaless process, it act to eliminate genetic variation over a
time.drift lead in increase homozygosity for diploid organism and cause increase in inbreeding
coefficient, and resulting in facilitate speciation(creating new species)
Gene flow-gene flow is transfer of allele and genes from one population to another.through
reproduction in same species.gene flow is also non as gene migration,
geographically isolated populations in very different environments be likely to evolve in a
similar way- speciation is a lineage splitting evolutionary process that produce two or more
species,
means creation of new and distinct biological species by branching off form ancestral population.
occure when gene flow is reduce sufficiently between sister population, and this play critical role
in speciation.
mode of speciation are often classified as allopatric speciation and sympatric speciation
allopatric speciation-geographical isolation between population, and increase genetic divergen by
either genetic drift or selection, selection for increase reproduction isolation, and speciation
completed.
sympatric speciation-does not require geographical isoloation, this reproductive isolation depend
on number of factor- like, competition for resources,disruptive selection,sexual selection.
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This document provides an overview of key concepts in evolutionary theory, including:
- The history of evolutionary thought from ancient Greek and medieval views to modern theories proposed by Darwin and Spencer.
- Mechanisms of evolution like natural selection, genetic drift, mutation and gene flow that can lead to changes in allele frequencies within populations.
- Other evolutionary processes such as adaptation, coevolution, speciation and extinction that shape the diversity of life over time.
- The role of heredity, variation and inheritance in passing traits between generations and maintaining genetic variation within populations.
MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION.pptx
This document summarizes several mechanisms of evolution including natural selection, genetic drift, mutation, gene flow, artificial selection, sexual selection, and macroevolution patterns like adaptive radiation and convergent evolution. Natural selection leads to adaptations that increase fitness while genetic drift, mutation, and gene flow cause random changes in allele frequencies. Recombination generates genetic variation and macroevolution transforms life over long time periods through mass extinctions and diversification.
Hardy-Weinberg Law.pptx
The document discusses the Hardy-Weinberg Law, which states that gene and genotype frequencies in a random mating population will remain constant from generation to generation if there is no selection, migration, mutation, or genetic drift. A population is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium when the frequencies of genotypes like AA, Aa, and aa remain stable over time. However, factors like migration, mutation, genetic drift, inbreeding, and selection can disrupt equilibrium by changing the frequencies of genes in a population over generations. Selection in particular is important for crop improvement as it allows selected, desirable genotypes to reproduce more successfully.
Allelic frequency
The document discusses factors that can alter allelic frequencies in a population. It describes six main factors: 1) Mutation introduces new alleles, 2) Genetic drift like bottle neck effects can change frequencies randomly, 3) Migration through gene flow affects frequencies, 4) Natural selection increases frequencies of beneficial alleles and decreases unfavorable ones, 5) Non-random mating influences which individuals reproduce more, and 6) Inbreeding increases homozygosity. These genetic and evolutionary factors all impact the proportion of alleles in a population over time.
Modern Biology Chapter 16 (JOSHUA)
This document provides an overview of speciation and the formation of new species. It discusses genetic equilibrium in populations and the factors that can disrupt it, such as mutation, migration, genetic drift and natural selection. When isolated populations experience disruptions to genetic equilibrium over long periods of time, reproductive barriers can form, leading to the emergence of new species. The document outlines various mechanisms of speciation, including geographic isolation of populations, and provides examples of speciation observed in Darwin's finches on the Galapagos Islands.
Variation
This document discusses genetic and non-genetic sources of variation within populations. It defines variation and describes the main types as genotypic and phenotypic. The key causes of genetic variation are mutations, gene flow, genetic drift, sexual reproduction and recombination during meiosis. Non-genetic sources include environmental factors, age, social influences, habitat, density and trauma. Variation is important for evolution as it provides genetic diversity for natural selection to act upon, allowing populations to adapt to changing environments over time.
Evolution.pptx
Evolution is the process of change over generations in a species' characteristics through natural selection. Natural selection occurs as individuals with favorable traits are more likely to survive and pass on those traits, while unfavorable traits may die out. Over many generations, this leads populations to adapt to their environments and can result in new species forming. Gene frequencies in populations also change over time through various mechanisms like mutation, migration, genetic drift, and natural selection, driving microevolution within species.
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Evidence of Evolution by Natural Selection - how basic evolutionary principal...
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4chapter37
The circulatory system transports blood throughout the body using the heart, arteries, veins and capillaries. The main organs of the respiratory system include the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs which facilitate gas exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood. Breathing is controlled by the brain and carbon dioxide levels, while disorders of the circulatory system include high blood pressure, heart attack, and stroke.
4chapter38
The document summarizes the digestive and excretory systems. It describes the stages of digestion starting in the mouth and continuing through the esophagus, stomach, pancreas, liver, and small and large intestines. It then discusses the key roles and structures of the kidneys in the excretory system, including filtration and reabsorption of waste, and how the kidneys help regulate water content in the blood and maintain homeostasis.
4chapter36
The skeletal system supports the body, protects internal organs, provides movement, and stores minerals. There are three types of joints: immovable, slightly movable, and freely movable. The muscular system contains three types of muscle tissue and muscles contract to allow movement. The integumentary system is made up of skin, which acts as a barrier, protects against injury, regulates temperature, removes waste, and protects against sun radiation.
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This document summarizes key concepts around evolution of populations including genes and variation, evolution as genetic change, and the process of speciation. It discusses Darwin's ideas, genetic variation through mutations and gene shuffling, how natural selection can lead to changes in allele frequencies and evolution, and the roles of genetic drift, genetic equilibrium, reproductive isolation, and speciation through founders arriving, separation of populations, changes in gene pools, and reproductive isolation.
6chapter18
Binomial nomenclature provides a two-part naming system for species, with the first word being the genus and the second being the specific epithet. Linnaeus established a seven-level hierarchical system of classification including kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. Cladograms and molecular clocks use DNA comparisons to represent evolutionary relationships and time since divergence between organisms. The three domains of life are Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya, with Bacteria and Archaea being prokaryotic and unicellular, and Eukarya containing multicellular eukaryotes including plants, animals, fungi, and most protists.
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The document discusses the key components and functions of the digestive and excretory systems. It covers the mouth, esophagus, stomach, pancreas, liver, small intestine, large intestine, kidneys, and homeostasis. The digestive system breaks down food through mechanical and chemical digestion to extract nutrients, while the excretory system, including the kidneys and bladder, filters waste from the blood and removes it from the body.
6chapter39
The endocrine system is made up of glands that release hormones into the bloodstream. Hormones affect target cells that have receptors for that hormone and can take minutes to days to have their full effect. There are two main types of glands: exocrine glands that release secretions through ducts and endocrine glands that release directly into the bloodstream. The pituitary gland controls the functions of other endocrine glands like the thyroid, which regulates metabolism, and the adrenals, which help the body deal with stress. Feedback mechanisms help regulate hormone levels to maintain homeostasis.
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The document discusses the immune system and diseases, including infectious diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, protists, and fungi that are spread through various means. It describes the immune system's nonspecific defenses like the skin and inflammatory response, as well as its specific defenses through antibodies. The document also covers allergies as an overreaction of the immune system, autoimmune disorders where the immune system attacks the body's own cells, and cancer which occurs when cell growth controls fail. It lists chemotherapy, radiation, and surgery as common cancer treatment methods.
6chapter11
This document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 11 on genetics. It discusses Gregor Mendel's work with pea plants, the principles of dominance and segregation. It also explains probability and Punnett squares, Mendel's two-factor crosses, his principles of inheritance, meiosis, the differences between mitosis and meiosis, and gene mapping.
6chapter35
The document discusses the nervous system and its key components and functions. The nervous system coordinates the body's responses to environmental changes and consists of the central nervous system, made up of the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system of nerves. The brain contains five main parts and the spinal cord functions like a phone line. The senses detect changes in the environment via sensory receptors and relay this information to the brain. Drugs can impact the nervous system by acting as stimulants, depressants, or by other means of changing brain structure and function.
6 Chapter36
The document summarizes the skeletal, muscular, and integumentary systems of the human body. It describes that the skeletal system supports the body, provides movement, protects organs, and stores minerals. It identifies the main skeletal organs and types of joints. It then explains that skin is made of two layers and produces melanin. The muscular system section notes the three main muscle types. Finally, it outlines that the integumentary system acts as a barrier and regulates temperature, waste, and UV radiation protection.
6chapter37
The circulatory and respiratory systems work together to transport oxygen, nutrients, and waste throughout the body. The circulatory system includes the heart, blood vessels, and blood. The heart pumps blood through a double circulatory pathway. Blood is composed of red blood cells, which carry oxygen, and white blood cells, which help fight infection. The respiratory system includes the nose, throat, lungs, and diaphragm. It takes in oxygen and releases carbon dioxide through breathing. Disorders of these systems can impair circulation or respiration and cause issues like heart disease or stroke.
6 Chapter14
This document summarizes key concepts about the human genome. It explains that humans have 46 chromosomes, including sex chromosomes that determine gender as XX for females and XY for males. It describes how traits are passed down from parents according to Mendel's laws of inheritance. Genes located on DNA code for proteins and determine traits, with some on the X and Y chromosomes being sex-linked. Chromosomal disorders can occur if homologous chromosomes do not separate properly during cell division. Gene therapy involves replacing a non-working gene with a normal gene, with the first successful therapy occurring in 1999.
6chapter12
DNA stores and transmits genetic information from one generation to the next. Watson and Crick discovered that DNA has a double helix structure with two strands wound around each other. DNA replication and transcription produce new DNA and RNA molecules, while translation uses RNA to produce proteins according to the genetic code stored in DNA. Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence that affect the genetic information.
4 Chapter11
This document provides an overview of key concepts in genetics including:
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2) Probability and Punnett squares can be used to predict the possible outcomes of genetic crosses and determine genotypes and phenotypes.
3) Other Mendelian genetics concepts explored are independent assortment, incomplete dominance, codominance, multiple alleles, and polygenic traits which result from the interaction of multiple genes.
4) Meiosis is the process where the number of chromosomes is halved through homologous chromosome separation in diploid cells.
5) Link
4chapter13
This document discusses genetic engineering techniques including selective breeding, inbreeding, hybridization, and molecular biology tools to extract, cut, separate and read DNA sequences in order to transform bacteria, plant and animal cells to create transgenic microorganisms, animals and plants as well as using cloning.
4chapter14
The human body contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, including one X chromosome in females and one X and one Y chromosome in males. Nondisjunction occurs when abnormal chromosome counts in gametes cause chromosome number disorders. The Human Genome Project aimed to sequence all human DNA to better understand genetics and enable advances like gene therapy, DNA fingerprinting, and treating genetic disorders.
4chapter15
Darwin went on a voyage aboard the HMS Beagle to the Galapagos Islands where he observed that species on different islands had slight differences that helped them survive in their environments; after returning home, he published On the Origin of Species which introduced his theory of evolution by natural selection, wherein organisms better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and pass on their traits, while less suited organisms die off.
4chapter17
The document outlines the major events in the history of life on Earth, from early single-celled organisms to complex multicellular life. It discusses how fossils provide evidence of early life, how oxygen levels allowed new organisms to emerge, and how sexual reproduction accelerated evolution. It then covers the rise of marine and land animals, the era of dinosaurs and flowering plants, the age of mammals, mass extinctions that opened habitats for new species, and how life has changed from simple to complex forms over time through evolution and coevolution.
4chapter18
This document discusses scientific classification systems from Linnaeus' early system to modern evolutionary classification using DNA evidence. It outlines the kingdoms of life as bacteria, archea, and eukarya according to the three-domain system of classification and notes that scientific understanding of the tree of life continues to evolve over time.
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みなさんこんにちはこれ何文字まで入るの？40文字以下不可とか本当に意味わからないけどこれ限界文字数書いてないからマジでやばい文字数いけるんじゃないの？えこ...
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