4 6 species role in ecosystems
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Each species plays a unique ecological role called its niche. Generalist species can live in many different environments and eat many foods, like cockroaches, mice, and people. Cockroaches in particular are highly adapted generalists that can survive almost anywhere except the polar regions. Specialist species require very specific habitats, like salamanders and pandas. Some species indicate environmental damage if their populations decline, while keystone species have significant impacts on the ecosystem and can alter its structure if eliminated, such as pollinators and top predators. Foundation species create habitats through their activities.
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Tropical rainforests are found near the equator, cover 6% of the land surface, and are home to 50% of the world's plant and animal species. However, at least 50% have been destroyed or disturbed by human activities like cutting down trees, growing crops, grazing livestock, and building settlements. The consequences are a decrease in biodiversity as species go extinct, accelerated global warming due to fewer trees removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, and changes to regional weather patterns that can lead to more tropical grasslands.
Pollution Notes
Pollution is defined as contamination of the environment that harms humans or other organisms. There are two main types of pollution sources: point sources like smokestacks, and nonpoint sources like water runoff. Preventing pollution is more effective and less costly than cleaning it up after the fact. Some major causes of environmental problems are exponential population growth, wasteful resource use, poverty, and failure to account for environmental costs in market prices. Living more sustainably involves relying more on renewable energy, protecting biodiversity, and avoiding disruption of natural chemical cycles.
Ecology intro
The document provides an introduction to ecology. It discusses how the Earth formed around 4.5 billion years ago based on radioactive dating. The first life formed when lightning helped fuse molecules together to create the first prokaryotic and heterotrophic cell. Ecology is then defined as the study of interactions between living and nonliving factors in an environment. Examples of biotic factors include plants, animals, while abiotic factors include air, water, and energy. Ecosystems are areas that include all organisms and nonliving elements found in a particular place, such as a stream ecosystem containing fish, algae, bacteria, insects, aquatic plants, and nonliving elements like chemicals, pH, and sunlight levels.
1-1 Sustainablility Notes
This document discusses environmental sustainability and what is needed for a sustainable society. It provides three key principles of sustainability: 1) dependence on solar energy, 2) biodiversity which renews soil and purifies air/water, and 3) chemical cycling which recycles nutrients. A sustainable society lives off the earth's natural processes without depleting resources. While renewable resources can be renewed, nonrenewable resources are finite and human activity has exceeded replacement rates. Developed countries have a much larger ecological footprint due to higher consumption despite being only 19% of the population.
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Option c1 species and communities
Understandings:
The distribution of species is affected by limiting factors
Community structure can be strongly affected by keystone species
Each species plays a unique role within a community because of the unique combination of its spatial habitat and interactions with other species
Interactions between species in a community can be classified according to their effect
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Protein Synthesis Notes
Protein synthesis involves DNA being transcribed into mRNA which is then translated into proteins with the help of tRNA and rRNA. There are three main types of RNA - mRNA carries the genetic code from DNA to ribosomes, tRNA carries amino acids and bonds to mRNA through anticodons, and rRNA makes up ribosomes where protein synthesis occurs. The sequence of codons in mRNA determines the specific amino acid sequence of the resulting protein.
DNA Replication Notes
DNA replication involves unwinding the DNA double helix into single strands. Each single strand then serves as a template for new DNA synthesis. Enzymes such as helicase unwind the DNA and DNA polymerase adds complementary nucleotides to each new strand, resulting in two identical copies of the original DNA. There are proofreading enzymes that check the newly synthesized DNA for errors and repair mechanisms that help prevent mutations from environmental damage.
DNA Function and Structure Notes
DNA contains all of an organism's genetic information and is found in the cells of all living things. DNA is made up of long chains of nucleotides, which consist of a sugar, phosphate, and one of four nitrogen-containing bases. The order of these bases in the DNA determines an organism's traits by encoding genes. James Watson and Francis Crick discovered that DNA exists as a double helix structure, with the bases pairing together in a complementary way between chains.
Mitosis Notes
Mitosis is the process of cell division that produces two daughter cells from one parent cell. It has four main phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. During interphase, the cell's DNA is replicated in S phase in preparation for division. In mitosis, the chromosomes condense and align at the center of the cell before being separated and moved to opposite sides of the cell. Finally, in telophase and cytokinesis, the cell cytoplasm divides and separates to form two new daughter cells each with identical DNA to the original parent cell.
Introduction to Cell Division Notes
This document provides an introduction to cell division. It explains that cell division, also called mitosis, allows cells to reproduce through copying their DNA and splitting into two identical daughter cells. This process allows for growth and repair of tissues. The key stages of mitosis are described, including how DNA condenses into chromosomes, replicates, and separates so each new cell contains an identical copy. Mitosis produces new cells with identical genetic material, while meiosis creates gametes like eggs and sperm with half the number of chromosomes.
Chemosynthesis Notes
The document discusses chemosynthesis, a process by which bacteria living symbiotically with tubeworms at deep sea thermal vents produce food. At these vents, bacteria inside the tubeworms' cells use hydrogen sulfide from the hot water as an energy source to produce glucose through chemosynthesis. This provides the basis for a unique food chain at the vents, where no sunlight penetrates.
Cellular Respiration Notes
Cellular respiration is the process by which cells convert glucose into usable energy (ATP). There are two types of cellular respiration: aerobic respiration, which uses oxygen to produce 36 ATP, and anaerobic respiration, which does not use oxygen and produces only 2 net ATP. The process begins with glycolysis in the cytoplasm, which breaks glucose into two pyruvic acid molecules. The cell then undergoes either anaerobic respiration through fermentation, or aerobic respiration in the mitochondria.
Photosynthesis Notes
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria use sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water to produce oxygen and energy in the form of glucose. It takes place in chloroplasts through two stages - the light reactions where light energy is captured to make ATP and NADPH, and the Calvin cycle where carbon is incorporated into organic compounds using the energy from the light reactions. Photosynthesis is essential as it provides the primary source of energy for nearly all life on Earth and removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
Active Transport Notes
Active transport moves substances against their concentration gradient using ATP as an energy source. Endocytosis and exocytosis transport large substances across cell membranes. Endocytosis ingests external fluids and particles by pinocytosis or phagocytosis. Exocytosis moves proteins and other large molecules out of cells. The Golgi body packages proteins into vesicles, which the ER transports to the cell membrane for export outside the cell. These processes help maintain homeostasis by ensuring cells have sufficient macromolecules to function correctly.
Passive Transport Notes
Passive transport involves the movement of substances down their concentration gradient without requiring energy. There are four main types of passive transport: diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, and diffusion through ion channels. Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane from an area of high water concentration to low concentration and does not require energy. When a cell is placed in solutions of different concentrations, water will move in or out of the cell by osmosis to reach equilibrium. [/SUMMARY]
Introduction to Transport Notes
Cell membranes allow molecules to pass in and out of cells through passive or active transport in order to maintain homeostasis. Passive transport involves molecules moving down their concentration gradient through the cell membrane without requiring energy. Active transport moves molecules against their concentration gradient by using energy. This allows cells to regulate the movement of substances and control what passes through the selectively permeable cell membrane.
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This document provides information on the structures and functions of various cell organelles. It begins by stating that the following slides will review the names and functions of important cell organelles. It then discusses the cell membrane, cytoplasm, mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, cilia, flagella, nucleus, and three additional organelles found in plant cells: cell walls, vacuoles, and plastids such as chloroplasts. For each organelle, it provides a brief definition of its name and role within the cell.
Introduction to Cell Notes
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Proteries of Water Notes
Water is essential for living things because it makes up most of their bodies. It has unique properties including polarity, hydrogen bonding, and temperature moderation. Polarity gives water polar molecules that allow it to dissolve many substances. Hydrogen bonding between water molecules accounts for its three states as a solid, liquid, or gas and allows water to stick to itself and other surfaces. Its high heat capacity means water absorbs large amounts of energy during temperature changes to maintain homeostasis in organisms.
Macromolecule Notes
Macromolecules are large molecules composed of many subunits or monomers linked together. There are four main types of macromolecules: carbohydrates which provide energy, proteins which make up cells and catalyze reactions, lipids which store energy efficiently, and nucleic acids which store genetic information. Each macromolecule type has characteristic monomer subunits that polymerize to form larger structures with distinct functions, such as starch, keratin, phospholipids, and DNA/RNA.
Biochemistry Notes
Chemistry is important in biology because the structure and function of living things are governed by chemical laws. All living things are composed of six main elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur. Atoms of these elements form bonds and combine to create molecules and compounds through chemical reactions. Carbon is unique in that it can form four bonds, allowing it to make complex molecules with different shapes that are essential for life.
Catalysts Notes
Cells use catalysts to speed up chemical reactions by reducing the activation energy required. Catalysts work by lowering the energy barrier of a reaction without being used up in the process, allowing reactions to occur faster and with less energy. The most common type of catalyst in living things are enzymes, which are proteins that catalyze biochemical reactions and help processes like digestion occur quicker without changing their own structure.
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Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
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Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
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1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
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4 6 species role in ecosystems
- 1. 4-6 Species Role in Ecosystems
- 2. Concept to Understand • Each species plays a specific ecological role called its niche.
- 3. Ecological Niche • Every species occupy unique niches and play specific roles in an ecosystem
- 4. Ecological Niche • Generalist species – can live many different places, eat many things, tolerate wide variety of environmental conditions ▫ Examples: people, mice, cockroaches
- 5. Cockroach Information • Existed for 350 million years – 3,500 known species • Highly adapted, rapidly producing generalists ▫ Consume almost anything ▫ Endure food shortage ▫ Survive everywhere except polar regions ▫ Avoid predation • Carry human diseases
- 6. Ecological Niche • Specialist species – can only survive in very specific habitat ▫ Examples: most salamanders, giant pandas
- 7. Ecological Niche • Native species – naturally found in that ecosystem • Nonnative species – invasive, alien, exotic • Spread to new ecosystems (because of humans) • Problems: • 1. No predators • 2. Kill native species which lack adaptation
- 8. Indicator Species • Indicator Species - Early warning system, damage to the environment causes this species population decline.
- 9. Keystone Species • Keystone Species - Significant role in ecosystem food web: large affect on other species in an ecosystem. • Ex. Algae
- 10. Keystone Species • Elimination may alter structure and/or function of ecosystem • Pollinators – bees, butterflies, hummingbirds, bats
- 11. Keystone Species • Top predators – alligator, wolf, lion, sharks
- 12. Keystone Species • Keystone species create habitat/ ecosystem & help to keep it functioning.
- 13. Foundation Species • Create habitats and ecosystems • Ex. Beavers, Elephants, Seed dispersers