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Synovial fluid analysis can help specialists diagnose and monitor joint conditions. Normal synovial fluid is acellular and aparticulate. Synovial fluid analysis examines the fluid's gross features, nucleated cell count, wet prep to identify crystals, and stained cell monolayer to identify cells. The nucleated cell count helps determine if the condition is inflammatory, with over 500 cells indicating inflammation. Synovial fluid analysis aids in referring patients, diagnosing inflammatory vs non-inflammatory conditions, and monitoring therapy response.
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Clinical applications of Synovial (joint ) fluid analysis Dr.Sandeep C Agraw...
Clinical applications of Synovial (joint ) fluid analysis Dr.Sandeep C Agraw...AGRASEN Fracture Arthritis Hospital, Ganesh Nagar,Gondia,Maharashtra,INDIA
Clinical applications of Synovial (joint ) fluid analysis Dr.Sandeep C Agrawal Agrasen Hospital Gondia India
Osteoarthritis,Rheumatoid Arthritis,Joint Tuberculosis,Crystal Induced Arthropathy,Periarticula Malignancy,SLE,Autoimmune diseasesSynovial fluid
Synovial fluid analysis provides diagnostic information for patients with joint infections or crystal-induced arthritis. Synovial fluid is normally clear and viscous, but abnormal fluids can be categorized as noninflammatory, inflammatory, septic, or hemorrhagic based on analysis. Key components of analysis include white blood cell count, differential count, cultures, Gram stain, and crystal search using polarized light microscopy. Abnormal findings help reduce the number of possible joint effusion causes to consider in the differential diagnosis.
Synovial fluid examination
Synovial fluid is produced by synovial membranes in joint cavities and acts as a lubricant and shock absorber. It contains hyaluronic acid and filters interstitial fluid. During a joint aspiration procedure, fluid is extracted from a joint through a needle for analysis. Abnormal fluid characteristics can indicate conditions like gout, arthritis, or infection. Precautions are taken to prevent complications, and patients are monitored after the procedure. Laboratory tests of synovial fluid include examining appearance, cell count, crystals, and culturing for bacteria.
Clinical Pathology & Equine Arthropathies
Overview of equine synovial fluid evaluation, for diagnosis and prognostication of common equine arthropathies (including sepsis)
Synovial fluid
synovial fluid is the fluid which is present within the joint for lubrication, provide of nutrition, to prevent from shock. fluid analysis is very important in medical field for the diagnosis of many diseases, on the basis of which a patient may be properly treated.
BIOCHEMISTRY OF SYNOVIAL FLUID
Synovial fluid is found in joint cavities and provides lubrication and nutrition to cartilage. It is composed of hyaluronic acid, lubricin, and other substances. Type B synovial cells secrete hyaluronic acid to give synovial fluid its viscosity. Synovial fluid analysis examines characteristics like clarity, viscosity, cell count, proteins, enzymes, and other biomarkers to diagnose conditions like infection, inflammation, or crystal-induced arthritis. The analysis is an important tool to identify joint diseases and guide appropriate treatment.
Synovial fluid analysis
one of the tutorial classes during my stint as a teacher in Orthopedics at Manipal University , MMMC , Melaka Malaysia
Synovial
This document outlines the physiology, collection, and laboratory testing of synovial fluid. Synovial fluid is produced by the synovial membrane in joint cavities and contains hyaluronic acid to lubricate joints. Laboratory testing of synovial fluid includes macroscopic evaluation of volume, color, viscosity and cell counts. Chemical analysis examines protein, glucose, uric acid and other components. Microscopic analysis identifies cell types, crystals and other inclusions. Joint disorders are classified based on laboratory findings as noninflammatory, inflammatory, septic or hemorrhagic. Synovial fluid analysis assists in diagnosing and classifying joint diseases.
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Osteoarthritis,Rheumatoid Arthritis,Joint Tuberculosis,Crystal Induced Arthropathy,Periarticula Malignancy,SLE,Autoimmune diseasesSynovial fluid
Synovial fluid analysis provides diagnostic information for patients with joint infections or crystal-induced arthritis. Synovial fluid is normally clear and viscous, but abnormal fluids can be categorized as noninflammatory, inflammatory, septic, or hemorrhagic based on analysis. Key components of analysis include white blood cell count, differential count, cultures, Gram stain, and crystal search using polarized light microscopy. Abnormal findings help reduce the number of possible joint effusion causes to consider in the differential diagnosis.
Synovial fluid examination
Synovial fluid is produced by synovial membranes in joint cavities and acts as a lubricant and shock absorber. It contains hyaluronic acid and filters interstitial fluid. During a joint aspiration procedure, fluid is extracted from a joint through a needle for analysis. Abnormal fluid characteristics can indicate conditions like gout, arthritis, or infection. Precautions are taken to prevent complications, and patients are monitored after the procedure. Laboratory tests of synovial fluid include examining appearance, cell count, crystals, and culturing for bacteria.
Clinical Pathology & Equine Arthropathies
Overview of equine synovial fluid evaluation, for diagnosis and prognostication of common equine arthropathies (including sepsis)
Synovial fluid
synovial fluid is the fluid which is present within the joint for lubrication, provide of nutrition, to prevent from shock. fluid analysis is very important in medical field for the diagnosis of many diseases, on the basis of which a patient may be properly treated.
BIOCHEMISTRY OF SYNOVIAL FLUID
Synovial fluid is found in joint cavities and provides lubrication and nutrition to cartilage. It is composed of hyaluronic acid, lubricin, and other substances. Type B synovial cells secrete hyaluronic acid to give synovial fluid its viscosity. Synovial fluid analysis examines characteristics like clarity, viscosity, cell count, proteins, enzymes, and other biomarkers to diagnose conditions like infection, inflammation, or crystal-induced arthritis. The analysis is an important tool to identify joint diseases and guide appropriate treatment.
Synovial fluid analysis
one of the tutorial classes during my stint as a teacher in Orthopedics at Manipal University , MMMC , Melaka Malaysia
Synovial
This document outlines the physiology, collection, and laboratory testing of synovial fluid. Synovial fluid is produced by the synovial membrane in joint cavities and contains hyaluronic acid to lubricate joints. Laboratory testing of synovial fluid includes macroscopic evaluation of volume, color, viscosity and cell counts. Chemical analysis examines protein, glucose, uric acid and other components. Microscopic analysis identifies cell types, crystals and other inclusions. Joint disorders are classified based on laboratory findings as noninflammatory, inflammatory, septic or hemorrhagic. Synovial fluid analysis assists in diagnosing and classifying joint diseases.
Synovial fluid examination
This document discusses synovial fluid, its composition and functions, as well as how and why synovial fluid analysis is performed. It contains the following key points:
- Synovial fluid is a viscous fluid found in joints that lubricates and nourishes cartilage. It is composed of proteins, glucose, and cells.
- Synovial fluid analysis can help differentiate between infectious, inflammatory, bleeding, and crystal-related joint disorders by examining the fluid's viscosity, color, contents under microscopy.
- Abnormal synovial fluid is obtained through arthrocentesis, and is then analyzed macroscopically, microscopically, and through microbiological testing to identify the cause of joint
Synovial fluid
It is fluid which is viscous found in the cavity of movable joints,
b/w Sub-intima n Intima synovium.
Asiatic Fluid
This document provides information on the laboratory examination of serous fluids, including pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal fluids. It describes the typical appearance, cell counts, chemical and microbiological tests performed on each type of fluid to determine if the fluid is a transudate or exudate and identify any infectious or malignant causes of fluid accumulation. Differential diagnoses are made based on characteristics of the fluid such as protein and cell counts as well as the presence of bacteria, tumor markers, or other abnormal findings.
Radang akut
Acute inflammation involves increased blood flow and permeability of blood vessels, allowing neutrophils to adhere to vessel walls, transmigrate into tissues, and phagocytose pathogens through adhesion, engulfment, and degradation. This triggers neutrophils to release inflammatory products, while defects can increase infection risk. The key events are vasodilation, increased permeability, neutrophil adhesion and migration to injured sites, phagocytosis, and release of leukocyte products.
Patofisiologi edema
Oedema, or swelling, is caused by an abnormal accumulation of fluid in the interstitial tissue spaces. There are two main types - localized oedema affecting an organ or limb, and generalized oedema known as anasarca. The physiology of oedema involves a balance between hydrostatic pressure pushing fluid out of blood vessels and oncotic pressure pulling fluid back in. Disruptions to this balance that can cause oedema include decreased oncotic pressure, increased hydrostatic pressure, lymphatic obstruction, and increased capillary permeability. Common causes of oedema include cardiac, renal, and hepatic diseases.
Blood smear preparation, fixation, staining. Veterinary Clinical Examination ...
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Haemodynamics
Disorders that perturb cardiovascular, renal, or hepatic function are often marked by the accumulation of fluid in tissues (edema) or body cavities (effusions).
Peripheral smear
This document provides information about performing and interpreting a peripheral blood smear. It discusses examining red blood cells for morphology, abnormalities in shape and distribution, and inclusions. White blood cell morphology of neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, monocytes, and lymphocytes is also described. Platelet morphology and abnormalities in platelet count are briefly covered. The preparation, staining, and examination process for a peripheral blood smear is outlined.
Effusion cytology.pptx
This document discusses effusion cytology, including the types and sampling of serous effusions. Serous effusions can occur in the pleural, peritoneal, and pericardial cavities and can be transudates or exudates. Transudates have little protein and few cells while exudates are rich in protein and cells. Effusions are usually sampled via thoracentesis, paracentesis, or pericardiocentesis. Normal components in effusions include mesothelial cells, histiocytes, lymphocytes, and collagen balls. Neoplastic effusions may contain malignant cells and have a more sudden onset than non-neoplastic effusions which are devoid of cancer cells.
Artefacts in hemat part 2
The document discusses various hematological investigations and artifacts. It describes the process of a differential count, which involves examining a peripheral blood smear under a microscope to determine percentages of different white blood cells. The blood smear can also reveal abnormal red blood cell and white blood cell morphologies. The document then discusses the steps to make a good blood smear, including using a clean slide and proper angulation and force when spreading the blood. Potential artifacts from improper smear preparation or staining are also described. The document concludes with discussing various hematological tests including complete blood count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, coagulation tests, and factors that could affect the results.
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This document discusses the effects of hypotonic, hypertonic, and isotonic solutions on animal and plant cells. In an isotonic solution, water diffuses into and out of the cell at equal rates, maintaining the cell's normal shape. In a hypotonic solution, water enters the cell by osmosis, causing it to swell and potentially burst. In a hypertonic solution, water leaves the cell by osmosis, causing it to shrink or become plasmolyzed. Food preservation uses hypertonic solutions of salt or vinegar to dehydrate tissues and prevent microbial growth.
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Necrosis
Necrosis is the death of cells and living tissue. It occurs when there is not enough blood flow to tissues. The main types of necrosis are coagulative, liquefactive, caseous, and gangrenous. Coagulative necrosis occurs due to ischemia and results in a gel-like substance in dead tissues. Liquefactive necrosis results from infections and the digestion of dead cells into pus. Caseous necrosis is caused by bacteria and fungi and leaves dead tissue that looks like clumped cheese. Gangrenous necrosis resembles mummified tissue and is characteristic of lower limb and gastrointestinal ischemia. Treatment of necrosis involves restoring blood flow, antibiotics to prevent infection, and debridement to remove dead tissues.
Lupus erythematosus cell
This document discusses the Lupus erythematosus cell (LE cell), which is a neutrophil or monocyte that has ingested altered nuclear material from another cell. The presence of LE cells in blood smears is strongly suggestive of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). The document describes a method called the Rotary Method of Zinkham and Conley for inducing the formation of LE cells from a patient's blood sample through rotation and heating. It notes that a positive LE cell test is found in 75% of SLE patients but there can be false positives, so it is not a definitive diagnostic test.
Tissue fluid formation & Edema slideshare
Tissue fluid is formed from blood capillaries and tissue metabolism and occupies the spaces between cells. It is formed primarily through the filtration of fluid out of capillaries due to hydrostatic pressure gradients, and reabsorbed based on oncotic pressure gradients, as described by Starling's forces. Edema occurs when there is excessive accumulation of fluid in the interstitial spaces, which can be caused by increased capillary filtration, inadequate drainage, or decreased plasma oncotic pressure due to conditions like heart or liver disease.
Le cell
The LE cell demonstration document describes the LE cell, which is a neutrophil that has phagocytosed nuclear material coated with antinuclear antibodies, a characteristic of lupus erythematosus. It discusses several methods for demonstrating LE cells in blood samples, including using clotted blood, defibrinated blood, or the rotary method. The rotary method involves adding glass beads to heparinized blood and rotating at 50rpm for 30 minutes at 37 degrees Celsius before preparing buffy coat smears to identify LE cells.
Starling forces
The Starling forces refer to the balance of hydrostatic and oncotic pressures that determine the filtration and reabsorption of fluid across the capillary wall. There are four Starling forces - hydrostatic pressure in the capillaries and interstitium and oncotic pressure in the capillaries and interstitium. According to the Starling principle, fluid movement across the capillary wall is dependent on the balance between the hydrostatic pressure gradient and oncotic pressure gradient. The Starling equation represents this balance, where the fluid movement equals the capillary filtration coefficient times the difference between the hydrostatic and oncotic pressures. At the arterial end, outward forces exceed inward forces, resulting in net filtration. At
L=4 synovial fluid
Synovial fluid is a viscous fluid found in cavities of synovial joints. Its role is to reduce friction between cartilage during movement. Synovial fluid may be collected via arthrocentesis, where a syringe is used to aspirate fluid from the joint capsule. Aspirated fluid is analyzed in a microbiology lab to diagnose infections like septic arthritis. Bacteria can enter joints through various routes and cause rapid cartilage damage and pain. Common bacteria that may be found in synovial fluid include Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pneumoniae.
Fluids and electrolytes
The document discusses the composition and regulation of body fluids and electrolytes. It covers the following key points:
- Approximately 60% of body weight is fluid located in two main compartments - intracellular and extracellular space.
- Major electrolytes include sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, bicarbonate, and phosphate which are critical for cellular function and fluid balance.
- The kidneys, lungs, skin, and gastrointestinal tract are responsible for regulating fluid and electrolyte balance through processes like filtration, sweating, and urine production.
- Laboratory tests like osmolality, creatinine, and hematocrit are used to evaluate fluid status and renal function in maintaining homeostasis.
Septic shock
Septic shock is defined as infection combined with systemic inflammatory response syndrome that causes inadequate organ perfusion and progressive organ dysfunction. It is usually caused by bacterial infection spreading from a site of infection into the bloodstream. Diagnosis involves identifying signs of infection and organ dysfunction. Treatment focuses on supporting vital organ functions through respiratory support, circulatory support through fluid resuscitation and vasopressors, administering antibiotics, and treating any underlying infections through drainage or surgery. Prognosis depends on early diagnosis and treatment of infections before organ damage becomes irreversible.
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Synovial fluid examination
This document discusses synovial fluid, its composition and functions, as well as how and why synovial fluid analysis is performed. It contains the following key points:
- Synovial fluid is a viscous fluid found in joints that lubricates and nourishes cartilage. It is composed of proteins, glucose, and cells.
- Synovial fluid analysis can help differentiate between infectious, inflammatory, bleeding, and crystal-related joint disorders by examining the fluid's viscosity, color, contents under microscopy.
- Abnormal synovial fluid is obtained through arthrocentesis, and is then analyzed macroscopically, microscopically, and through microbiological testing to identify the cause of joint
Synovial fluid
It is fluid which is viscous found in the cavity of movable joints,
b/w Sub-intima n Intima synovium.
Asiatic Fluid
This document provides information on the laboratory examination of serous fluids, including pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal fluids. It describes the typical appearance, cell counts, chemical and microbiological tests performed on each type of fluid to determine if the fluid is a transudate or exudate and identify any infectious or malignant causes of fluid accumulation. Differential diagnoses are made based on characteristics of the fluid such as protein and cell counts as well as the presence of bacteria, tumor markers, or other abnormal findings.
Radang akut
Acute inflammation involves increased blood flow and permeability of blood vessels, allowing neutrophils to adhere to vessel walls, transmigrate into tissues, and phagocytose pathogens through adhesion, engulfment, and degradation. This triggers neutrophils to release inflammatory products, while defects can increase infection risk. The key events are vasodilation, increased permeability, neutrophil adhesion and migration to injured sites, phagocytosis, and release of leukocyte products.
Patofisiologi edema
Oedema, or swelling, is caused by an abnormal accumulation of fluid in the interstitial tissue spaces. There are two main types - localized oedema affecting an organ or limb, and generalized oedema known as anasarca. The physiology of oedema involves a balance between hydrostatic pressure pushing fluid out of blood vessels and oncotic pressure pulling fluid back in. Disruptions to this balance that can cause oedema include decreased oncotic pressure, increased hydrostatic pressure, lymphatic obstruction, and increased capillary permeability. Common causes of oedema include cardiac, renal, and hepatic diseases.
Blood smear preparation, fixation, staining. Veterinary Clinical Examination ...
How to make a blood smear, including all steps: Preparation, fixation and staining. Veterinary clinical Examination for small and large animals. Methanol - Fixation. Additionaly basic information about blood.
Haemodynamics
Disorders that perturb cardiovascular, renal, or hepatic function are often marked by the accumulation of fluid in tissues (edema) or body cavities (effusions).
Peripheral smear
This document provides information about performing and interpreting a peripheral blood smear. It discusses examining red blood cells for morphology, abnormalities in shape and distribution, and inclusions. White blood cell morphology of neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, monocytes, and lymphocytes is also described. Platelet morphology and abnormalities in platelet count are briefly covered. The preparation, staining, and examination process for a peripheral blood smear is outlined.
Effusion cytology.pptx
This document discusses effusion cytology, including the types and sampling of serous effusions. Serous effusions can occur in the pleural, peritoneal, and pericardial cavities and can be transudates or exudates. Transudates have little protein and few cells while exudates are rich in protein and cells. Effusions are usually sampled via thoracentesis, paracentesis, or pericardiocentesis. Normal components in effusions include mesothelial cells, histiocytes, lymphocytes, and collagen balls. Neoplastic effusions may contain malignant cells and have a more sudden onset than non-neoplastic effusions which are devoid of cancer cells.
Artefacts in hemat part 2
The document discusses various hematological investigations and artifacts. It describes the process of a differential count, which involves examining a peripheral blood smear under a microscope to determine percentages of different white blood cells. The blood smear can also reveal abnormal red blood cell and white blood cell morphologies. The document then discusses the steps to make a good blood smear, including using a clean slide and proper angulation and force when spreading the blood. Potential artifacts from improper smear preparation or staining are also described. The document concludes with discussing various hematological tests including complete blood count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, coagulation tests, and factors that could affect the results.
The effects of hypotonic, hypertonic and isotonic
This document discusses the effects of hypotonic, hypertonic, and isotonic solutions on animal and plant cells. In an isotonic solution, water diffuses into and out of the cell at equal rates, maintaining the cell's normal shape. In a hypotonic solution, water enters the cell by osmosis, causing it to swell and potentially burst. In a hypertonic solution, water leaves the cell by osmosis, causing it to shrink or become plasmolyzed. Food preservation uses hypertonic solutions of salt or vinegar to dehydrate tissues and prevent microbial growth.
Body Fluids
60% OF HUMAN BODY IS WATER!
How to Determine The Volume of Body Fluids Compartments??
Oedema
Dehydration
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This document discusses the osmotic fragility test for measuring the resistance of red blood cells to hemolysis in hypotonic solutions. It begins by explaining the principle that normal RBCs remain intact in isotonic saline but swell and rupture in hypotonic solutions. It then provides details on the normal range for hemolysis in saline solutions of different concentrations. Conditions that cause increased or decreased fragility are described. The apparatus, procedure, observations and factors affecting fragility are outlined. Potential hemolytic agents and the significance of variations in fragility test results are also summarized.
Necrosis
Necrosis is the death of cells and living tissue. It occurs when there is not enough blood flow to tissues. The main types of necrosis are coagulative, liquefactive, caseous, and gangrenous. Coagulative necrosis occurs due to ischemia and results in a gel-like substance in dead tissues. Liquefactive necrosis results from infections and the digestion of dead cells into pus. Caseous necrosis is caused by bacteria and fungi and leaves dead tissue that looks like clumped cheese. Gangrenous necrosis resembles mummified tissue and is characteristic of lower limb and gastrointestinal ischemia. Treatment of necrosis involves restoring blood flow, antibiotics to prevent infection, and debridement to remove dead tissues.
Lupus erythematosus cell
This document discusses the Lupus erythematosus cell (LE cell), which is a neutrophil or monocyte that has ingested altered nuclear material from another cell. The presence of LE cells in blood smears is strongly suggestive of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). The document describes a method called the Rotary Method of Zinkham and Conley for inducing the formation of LE cells from a patient's blood sample through rotation and heating. It notes that a positive LE cell test is found in 75% of SLE patients but there can be false positives, so it is not a definitive diagnostic test.
Tissue fluid formation & Edema slideshare
Tissue fluid is formed from blood capillaries and tissue metabolism and occupies the spaces between cells. It is formed primarily through the filtration of fluid out of capillaries due to hydrostatic pressure gradients, and reabsorbed based on oncotic pressure gradients, as described by Starling's forces. Edema occurs when there is excessive accumulation of fluid in the interstitial spaces, which can be caused by increased capillary filtration, inadequate drainage, or decreased plasma oncotic pressure due to conditions like heart or liver disease.
Le cell
The LE cell demonstration document describes the LE cell, which is a neutrophil that has phagocytosed nuclear material coated with antinuclear antibodies, a characteristic of lupus erythematosus. It discusses several methods for demonstrating LE cells in blood samples, including using clotted blood, defibrinated blood, or the rotary method. The rotary method involves adding glass beads to heparinized blood and rotating at 50rpm for 30 minutes at 37 degrees Celsius before preparing buffy coat smears to identify LE cells.
Starling forces
The Starling forces refer to the balance of hydrostatic and oncotic pressures that determine the filtration and reabsorption of fluid across the capillary wall. There are four Starling forces - hydrostatic pressure in the capillaries and interstitium and oncotic pressure in the capillaries and interstitium. According to the Starling principle, fluid movement across the capillary wall is dependent on the balance between the hydrostatic pressure gradient and oncotic pressure gradient. The Starling equation represents this balance, where the fluid movement equals the capillary filtration coefficient times the difference between the hydrostatic and oncotic pressures. At the arterial end, outward forces exceed inward forces, resulting in net filtration. At
L=4 synovial fluid
Synovial fluid is a viscous fluid found in cavities of synovial joints. Its role is to reduce friction between cartilage during movement. Synovial fluid may be collected via arthrocentesis, where a syringe is used to aspirate fluid from the joint capsule. Aspirated fluid is analyzed in a microbiology lab to diagnose infections like septic arthritis. Bacteria can enter joints through various routes and cause rapid cartilage damage and pain. Common bacteria that may be found in synovial fluid include Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pneumoniae.
Fluids and electrolytes
The document discusses the composition and regulation of body fluids and electrolytes. It covers the following key points:
- Approximately 60% of body weight is fluid located in two main compartments - intracellular and extracellular space.
- Major electrolytes include sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, bicarbonate, and phosphate which are critical for cellular function and fluid balance.
- The kidneys, lungs, skin, and gastrointestinal tract are responsible for regulating fluid and electrolyte balance through processes like filtration, sweating, and urine production.
- Laboratory tests like osmolality, creatinine, and hematocrit are used to evaluate fluid status and renal function in maintaining homeostasis.
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Test Of Cerebrospinal Fluid And Serous Membrance Effusion
The document discusses tests of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and serous membrane effusions. It describes the indications and contraindications for lumbar puncture to obtain CSF samples. It outlines normal CSF values and abnormalities associated with different diseases. It also differentiates transudates from exudates in serous effusions based on characteristics like color, protein level, cell count, and glucose level.
Cartilage injuries
Cartilage injuries most commonly occur in the knee joints and can affect both young and elderly populations through traumatic or degenerative means. Treatment depends on the severity and location of the injury. For partial thickness injuries, arthroscopic debridement can provide short-term relief. For full thickness injuries, options include stimulating intrinsic healing by microfracture, altering joint loads through osteotomy, transferring autologous tissue through mosaicplasty or chondrocyte implantation, or using allografts. Future approaches may involve gene therapy to enhance the repair process.
Fluid cytology in serous cavity effusions
The intrathoracic and intraperitoneal organs are covered by a single layer of mesothelial cells, which is continuous with the lining of the thoracic and peritoneal cavities. The potential space between the two layers of epithelium contains a small amount of lubricating fluid.
Serous fluid lies between the membranes lining the body cavities(parietal) and those covering the organs within the cavities(visceral).
Production and reabsorption are normally at a constant rate. They are influenced by
Changes in osmotic and hydrostatic pressure in the blood.
Concentration of chemical constituents in the plasma
Permeability of blood vessels and membranes.
An accumulation of fluid, called an effusion, results from an imbalance of fluid production and reabsorption. This fluid accumulation in the pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal cavities is known as serous effusion.
Biochemical markers
This document discusses biochemical markers that can be used to monitor bone formation and resorption. It notes that these markers may provide preferable alternatives to densitometry in some clinical settings. The document reviews the history of using biochemical markers in orthopedics and describes markers of bone formation mediated by osteoblasts and bone resorption mediated by osteoclasts. It also discusses factors like hormones, local stresses, and the environment that can impact bone turnover.
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talus #
Talus fractures involve the second largest tarsal bone. Hawkins classification system categorizes talus neck fractures into 4 types based on displacement and disruption of blood supply. Type 1 fractures are undisplaced while type 4 have the worst prognosis. Treatment depends on fracture type but generally involves anatomical reduction, stable fixation, and avoiding complications like avascular necrosis. Surgical approaches may be needed for types 2-4 to achieve and maintain reduction.
shock
The document discusses different types of shock including hypovolumic, cardiogenic, septic, anaphylactic, and neurogenic shock. It defines shock as systemic hypoperfusion caused by reduced cardiac output or effective circulatory blood volume. Key signs are hypotension, tissue hypoperfusion, cellular hypoxia, and potential end organ dysfunction. Management involves treating the underlying cause, restoring circulating volume, providing vasoactive drugs and oxygenation support, and monitoring for multiple organ failure in intensive care. Prognosis depends on the shock type and duration, with septic and cardiogenic shock having higher mortality risks.
Short wave diathermy srs
Short wave diathermy is a therapeutic modality that uses electromagnetic radiation in the frequency range of 27-100 MHz to generate deep heat in body tissues. It works by inducing molecular vibration through radio wave penetration of tissues, causing both thermal and non-thermal effects. Common applications include reducing pain, inflammation and healing time for injuries or post-surgical conditions. Different electrode types and placements can be used to concentrate the electromagnetic field in specific areas. Factors like electrode size, spacing, and positioning affect the depth and distribution of heating in the target tissues. Risks include burns and electric shock if not properly administered.
Foot Drop
The document describes the case of a 40-year-old man presenting with right foot drop and difficulty walking. His medical history includes several episodes as a child and young adult of temporary leg paralysis without clear cause. Electrophysiology testing showed normal results inconsistent with his symptoms. His symptoms and history were inconsistent and suggestive of a non-organic or factitious disorder.
General principles of arthroscopy kle, belgaum, dr utkarsh dwivedi
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2. Aneurysmal bone cyst usually affects children and adolescents under 20 and can occur throughout the body, including the long bones, spine and sacrum. It presents as a well-defined, expansile lytic lesion with thin sclerotic margins and may contain fluid-fluid levels.
3. The treatments for both tumours include curettage, but aneurysmal bone cyst may also be treated with embolisation or fibrosing agents while giant cell tumour can sometimes be treated
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Primary hyperparathyroidism is caused by excessive secretion of parathyroid hormone from one or more parathyroid glands. Historically, it manifested as a disease of bone, kidney stones, and other complications. Now, it often presents with only mildly elevated calcium and parathyroid hormone levels. Parathyroid hormone in excessive amounts can be harmful, but in controlled doses it acts as an osteoanabolic agent and increases bone mineral density. Teriparatide, a parathyroid hormone treatment, reduces fracture risk by stimulating new bone formation within an "anabolic window". A new analogue, abaloparatide, may also have osteoanabolic properties. Guidelines provide criteria for surgery versus monitoring in asymptomaticDe quervain's
De Quervain's disease is a stenosing tenosynovitis of the first dorsal compartment of the wrist caused by inflammation of the tendon sheaths of the abductor pollicis longus and extensor pollicis brevis tendons. It often affects women ages 30-50 and is caused by repetitive motions of the thumb like gripping. Symptoms include pain on the radial side of the wrist worsened by ulnar deviation and thumb movement. Diagnosis is based on tenderness over the tendon sheaths and a positive Finkelstein's test. Most cases are treated conservatively with splinting, activity modification and anti-inflammatories while surgery is reserved for persistent cases.
Antitubercular drugs
This document provides information on antitubercular drugs used to treat tuberculosis. It discusses first-line drugs like isoniazid, rifampin, pyrazinamide, ethambutol and streptomycin that are routinely used. It also discusses second-line drugs used when first-line drugs are ineffective or cannot be tolerated. The document describes the mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetics, resistance mechanisms and adverse effects of various antitubercular drugs. It also discusses treatment considerations for special populations like pregnant women, HIV patients and for chemoprophylaxis.
BIOMECHANICS OF HIP JOINT BY Dr. VIKRAM
1) The hip joint is a ball-and-socket joint that allows flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, and rotation. It supports the weight of the head, arms, and trunk.
2) The hip joint is made up of the femoral head articulating with the acetabulum. Several ligaments and the acetabular labrum provide stability to the joint. The angle of the femoral neck and torsion of the femur also affect biomechanics.
3) During standing and walking, forces from the body weight and ground reaction force act on the hip joint and femoral neck. A system of trabeculae in the femoral neck adapt to these forces. Muscles around the
Foot drop
Foot drop is caused by weakness of the muscles that lift the front of the foot due to damage to the common peroneal nerve. This prevents dorsiflexion of the ankle and toes. It can be unilateral or bilateral, and temporary or permanent. Symptoms include difficulty lifting the foot and slapping it down when walking. Treatment depends on the underlying cause but may include braces, physical therapy, nerve stimulation, or tendon transfer surgery if conservative treatments fail.
PRINCIPLES OF TENDON TRANSFERS
This document discusses principles of tendon transfers for restoring lost movement. It outlines key principles such as having supple joints before transfer, using a donor tendon with adequate excursion and strength, adhering to principles of synergy and straight line of pull. The timing of transfers depends on the likelihood of nerve recovery but can be done early to aid recovery. Contraindications include a lack of suitable donor muscles or transfers for joints with stiffness. Classification systems like Sunderland and Seddon are used to describe nerve injuries requiring tendon transfers.
Bone physiology & regulation of calcium metabolism
This document summarizes bone physiology and calcium metabolism. It describes the organic and inorganic constituents of bone, including collagen, calcium hydroxyapatite, and other minerals. It outlines the cells involved in bone remodeling including osteoprogenitor cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts. It also discusses the roles of vitamin D, parathyroid hormone, and calcitonin in regulating calcium levels in the body and maintaining bone health. Key bone diseases like osteoporosis, Paget's disease, and renal osteodystrophy are also summarized.
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Fluid cytology in CSF
CSF:
Derived through ultrafilteration and secretion through choroid plexus, produced at the rate of 500 ml/day.
Provides physical support, collects wastes, circulates nutrients and lubricates the CNS.
Normal CSF volumes:
In Adults: 90 - 150 ml
In Neonates: 10 - 60 ml
Total CSF volume is replaced every 5-7 hours.
COLLECTION
Lumbar puncture, Cisternal puncture, Lateral cervical puncture, Shunts and cannulas
Opening pressure – 90-180 mm H2O
Approximately 15-20 cc fluid collected
LAB
REQUIRED
Opening CSF pressure
Total cell count
Differential cell count
Glucose
Total protein
OPTIONAL
Cultures, Gram stain, AFB, Fungal and bacterial
antigens, Enzymes, PCR, Cytology, Electrophoresis,
VDRL, D-Dimers
Serous pleural effusions and recent advances
The document discusses the evaluation of serous effusions and recent advances in the field. It covers the anatomy and pathophysiology of serous cavities and effusions. Effusions are classified as transudates, exudates, or chylous based on biochemical and cytological characteristics. Reactive mesothelial cells are a universal component of effusions and require distinction from malignant cells. Processing techniques include cytospins, cell blocks, and immunocytochemistry. Biochemical tests and cell counts aid diagnosis. Cytological interpretation requires distinguishing normal, reactive and malignant cells while avoiding diagnostic pitfalls from reactive mesothelial cells.
Uveitis investigations
This document summarizes the clinical classification and investigations for uveitis. It divides uveitis into infectious and non-infectious categories. Infectious uveitis can be bacterial, viral, fungal or parasitic in origin. Non-infectious uveitis is further divided into those with a known systemic association and those without. Investigations may include blood tests, imaging like ultrasound and angiography, aqueous or vitreous taps, and biopsies depending on the severity, recurrence and presence of granulomatous signs. Specific tests are aimed at identifying underlying infectious or inflammatory diseases. A thorough history and examination provide important clues to guide appropriate investigations.
Necrotizing fascitis
DETAILED DISCUSSION OF NECROTIZING FASCIITIS.
A SOFT TISSUE INFECTION. USUALLY CALLED AS FLESH EATING BACTERIAL INFECTION. CAUSED BY BACTERIA. AFFECTS THE SOFT SKIN TISSUES
Uveitis
This document provides information on uveitis, including epidemiology, pathophysiology, classification, symptoms, clinical signs, grading, etiologies, and differential diagnoses. Some key points:
- Uveitis affects approximately 15 per 100,000 people in the US each year and is a leading cause of blindness. It is more common in those over 65, females, and presents as chronic and unilateral inflammation.
- Uveitis results from inflammation of the uveal tract (iris, ciliary body, choroid) which can be infectious, autoimmune, traumatic, or idiopathic in nature. This causes an inflammatory cascade in the eye.
- It is classified based on location (
4 immunology-csbrp
Autoimmune diseases result from a breakdown of self-tolerance that leads to an immune response against self-antigens. This document discusses several autoimmune disorders including systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), rheumatoid arthritis, Sjogren's syndrome, and Goodpasture's syndrome. SLE is characterized by the presence of antinuclear antibodies and can affect multiple organ systems. It is more common in females and has a strong genetic component. Goodpasture's syndrome is caused by autoantibodies against basement membrane proteins in the lungs and kidneys, leading to pulmonary hemorrhage and renal failure.
02 neutropenia
This document discusses neutropenia, a type of leukopenia characterized by an abnormally low number of neutrophils. There are two main types - quantitative disorders involving decreased bone marrow production or increased cell loss, and qualitative disorders affecting neutrophil function. Major causes of decreased bone marrow production include chemotherapy, radiation, drugs, and stem cell or myeloid failures. Increased cell loss can result from severe infections overwhelming production. Pseudoneutropenia involves neutrophils moving from circulating blood to tissue pools, appearing as low neutrophil counts. Morphological abnormalities seen in neutrophils provide diagnostic clues about underlying conditions.
Neuroblastoma
This document provides an overview of neuroblastoma, including:
- It is the most common extracranial solid tumor in children, arising from neural crest cells in the sympathetic nervous system.
- Presentation varies depending on location but may include abdominal mass, bone pain, opsoclonus, or Horner's syndrome.
- Staging uses the International Neuroblastoma Staging System and ranges from localized (Stage 1) to disseminated disease (Stage 4).
- Treatment involves surgery, chemotherapy, and sometimes radiation therapy. Prognostic factors include age at diagnosis and disease stage.
SASH : Nailing the diagnosis pathology by Dr Sophia Tzannes
This document discusses cytology and histopathology techniques for diagnosing diseases. It covers when cytology should be used, such as for pre-surgical diagnosis or staging. It describes how to perform cytology by ensuring the sample is of the intended lesion and of diagnostic quality. The document discusses interpreting cytology samples to determine if they show inflammation, necrosis, or a neoplastic process. For difficult cases like lymphoma, it recommends additional tests like immunophenotyping, PARR, and flow cytometry. The document also discusses when histopathology is important, such as for determining surgical margins, and when immunohistochemistry may be needed to reach a diagnosis.
Laboratory Tests and Diagnostic Procedures.pptx
Laboratory tests help identify the nature of disease by examining tissues, blood, urine or other specimens. There are two main types of tests - screening tests which detect early disease in large populations, and diagnostic tests which confirm or rule out disease in symptomatic individuals. Hematology involves tests on blood and blood-forming organs to evaluate conditions like anemia, infection, blood cancers, and clotting disorders. Common hematology tests include complete blood count, coagulation profile, and tests that measure components of blood like red and white blood cells, hemoglobin, hematocrit, and platelets. Abnormal results can indicate various blood disorders and diseases.
Lupus Nephritis :From Basics To Practice
This document provides an overview of lupus nephritis (LN), including:
- Epidemiology: Up to 40% of SLE cases involve the kidneys. It predominantly affects women aged 15-45.
- Pathogenesis: Autoantibodies form immune complexes that deposit in the glomerulus, activating complement and attracting inflammatory cells. The location of deposits determines histologic class.
- Diagnosis: Urinalysis, serum creatinine, immunological tests. Renal biopsy is needed to classify LN and guide treatment.
- Treatment involves induction therapy for 3-6 months, then maintenance to prevent chronic kidney disease. Treatment depends on histologic class and response to therapy. The goal
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Differential leukocyte count
The document provides information on differential leukocyte counting (DLC). It defines DLC as the relative proportion of different leukocytes expressed as a percentage. The main types of white blood cells (WBCs) described are granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils) and agranulocytes/mononuclear cells (lymphocytes, monocytes). Pathologic variations in DLC counts include neutrophilia, neutropenia, lymphocytosis, lymphopenia, monocytosis, eosinophilia, eosinopenia, and basophilia. Causes of each variation are outlined. Automated methods for differential counting are also discussed and compared to manual microscopic methods
meidicine.Vasculitis 1.(dr.kawa)
Vasculitis refers to a group of diseases characterized by inflammation of blood vessels. The document defines and classifies different types of vasculitis based on vessel size. It discusses the pathophysiology, clinical features, investigations and management of vasculitis. Giant cell arteritis is provided as an example of large vessel vasculitis that predominantly affects branches of the temporal and ophthalmic arteries in older individuals, with headaches, jaw pain and risk of vision loss as key clinical features.
Hematological laboratory tests
It is also called as complete blood picture/complete blood count(CBP/CBC)
The FBC assesses several different parameters and can provide a great deal of information.
The red cell variables will determine whether or not the patient is anaemic. If anaemia is present the MCV is likely to provide clues as to the cause of the anaemia.
The white cells are often raised in infection neutrophilia in bacterial infections and lymphocytosis in viral (but not always so).
Platelets (size or number) may be abnormal either as a direct effect of underlying blood disease.
hematologicallaboratorytests-210309102024.pdf
This document discusses clinical laboratory tests used to evaluate disease states, including a complete blood count (CBC). A CBC assesses red blood cell, white blood cell, and platelet parameters to detect anemias and infections. Red cell count, hemoglobin, hematocrit, mean corpuscular volume (MCV) are used to classify anemias as microcytic, normocytic, or macrocytic. White cell differential counts of neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils and basophils provide clues about bacterial vs. viral infections. Abnormal CBC results can indicate conditions like iron deficiency anemia, thalassemia, polycythemia, or leukemia. The document provides reference ranges and discusses abnormalities
The bethesda system for reporting thyroid cytopathology
The Bethesda System for Reporting Thyroid Cytopathology document outlines the standardized categories for reporting thyroid fine needle aspiration biopsy results. The categories include: Nondiagnostic/Unsatisfactory, Benign, Atypia of Undetermined Significance/Follicular Lesion of Undetermined Significance, Follicular Neoplasm/Suspicious for Follicular Neoplasm, Suspicious for Malignancy, and Malignant. Each category has specific criteria for cellularity, architecture, and nuclear features to provide consistent terminology for thyroid FNA interpretation and patient management.
Diagnostic cytology practical UG.pptx
This document discusses cytology, which is the study of cells. It describes different types of cytology examinations including fluid cytology, fine needle aspiration cytology (FNAC), and cervical exfoliative cytology. Common cytology staining techniques are also outlined such as Papanicolaou staining. The document explains how different cells and structures appear under different stains. Important aspects of cytology results and interpretation are highlighted such as the appearance of normal cells versus abnormal or cancerous cells.
Sjögren syndrome
Sjögren syndrome primarily affects women in their 40s-50s and is characterized by dry eyes and dry mouth due to reduced tear and saliva production. It has a variety of systemic manifestations involving organs like lungs, kidneys, blood vessels, and nerves. Diagnosis involves tests of tear and saliva function along with labial gland biopsy showing lymphocytic infiltrates. Treatment focuses on symptom relief and immunosuppression for severe extraglandular disease.
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Article wk 7
This study examined the acceptability of screening young pregnant women aged 16-25 for chlamydia during routine antenatal care. 100 women participated in interviews where they were informed about chlamydia and tested. The majority supported chlamydia screening during pregnancy due to concerns for the health of the baby. Common barriers to testing included stigma and a lack of awareness, though women who tested positive were relieved to receive treatment. The study concluded that with proper patient education, chlamydia screening during antenatal care is highly acceptable among young pregnant women.
Week 7 objective
This document outlines various methods of contraception, including barrier methods like condoms and diaphragms, as well as hormonal methods like oral contraceptives, transdermal patches, injectables, and emergency contraception. It describes the formulations and mechanisms of different hormonal contraceptives, such as monophasic and triphasic oral contraceptives that contain constant or varying levels of estrogen and progestin, extended cycle pills, and progestin-only mini pills. Long acting reversible contraceptives like the contraceptive implant and intrauterine device are also discussed.
Week 6 presentation
Mr. Salim, a 62-year-old man, presented with right neck and left groin swelling for 3 months along with 7-8 kg of weight loss. Biopsy revealed diffuse large B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL). He was diagnosed with stage IV NHL and treated with rituximab and CHOP chemotherapy. The presentation discusses lymphadenopathy causes, lymphoma types and differences between Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphomas, risk factors, investigations and treatments. Key points include distinguishing reactive from tumoral lymph nodes, indolent versus aggressive NHL subtypes, common genetic abnormalities in lymphomas, and involvement of Epstein-Barr virus in certain malignancies.
Week 4 objective
The document summarizes key investigations for SLE. It describes abnormalities that may be seen on a complete blood count, including anemia, leukopenia, and thrombocytopenia. It also notes that the erythrocyte sedimentation rate may be elevated but C-reactive protein is usually normal unless recurrent infections are present. A variety of autoantibodies and complement levels are measured via serology. Urinalysis is used to monitor for signs of kidney disease. Additional tests may be needed depending on organ system involvement.
Week 3 objective
The document discusses the causes and classifications of peripheral vascular disease. The main causes or risk factors include smoking, diabetes, male gender, age over 50, obesity, family history of vascular diseases, hypertension, dyslipidemia, and high levels of inflammatory markers. The disease is classified using the Fontaine stages which range from stage I with asymptomatic obstruction to stage IV with limb necrosis or gangrene, with stages IIA and IIB distinguishing claudication distances.
Week 2 objective
Type 1 diabetes is an immune-mediated condition where the immune system attacks and destroys the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas. Genetic factors like certain HLA genotypes are associated with type 1 diabetes. Type 2 diabetes involves both insulin resistance, where cells do not respond properly to insulin, and an inability of the pancreas to produce enough insulin to compensate. Obesity and genetic predispositions can contribute to insulin resistance in type 2 diabetes.
Objective week 1 physiology of breast
This document discusses the physiology of the breast. It describes how estrogen and progesterone affect breast growth and development. During pregnancy, the breasts enlarge significantly as the ducts and lobules grow and branch in preparation for lactation. By the second trimester, the breasts begin to produce colostrum. After birth, prolactin levels rise dramatically to promote milk secretion from the acini. Oxytocin released during suckling causes the myoepithelial cells to contract and expel milk from the alveoli into the ducts. During menopause, the lobules recede leaving mostly ducts, adipose, and fibrous tissue behind.
Competiotion
The document appears to be a set of practice questions for a medical exam covering topics related to neuroanatomy and neuropathology. There are 11 multiple choice questions testing knowledge of structures and diseases of the brain, skull, eyes, and nerves. The questions require identifying diagnoses, anatomical structures, and neurological deficits that can result from various medical conditions.
Week 12
The document discusses the microbiology of otitis media. It states that otitis media is often preceded by a viral upper respiratory infection or allergy that causes nasal congestion and inflammation. The most common bacterial causes are Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Moraxella catarrhalis. Viruses such as respiratory syncytial virus, rhinoviruses, influenza viruses, and adenoviruses can also cause otitis media alone or together with bacteria. The document additionally mentions that Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus epidermidis, S. aureus, Aspergillus and Candida are common causes of otitis externa.
Presentation9
This document discusses antipsychotic medications used to treat psychosis. It describes typical and atypical antipsychotics. Typical antipsychotics like haloperidol and chlorpromazine work by decreasing dopamine levels in the brain through D2 receptor antagonism. Atypical antipsychotics decrease dopamine levels through D2 or D4 receptor antagonism and also act as serotonin receptor antagonists. Common adverse effects of antipsychotics include extrapyramidal symptoms, weight gain, and increased risk of diabetes or cardiovascular issues. The document provides details on dosage and side effects of specific atypical antipsychotics like risperidone, quetiapine, aripiprazole, clozapine, olanzapine, and
Objective 11
This document discusses the pharmacology of glaucoma. It describes that surgery is indicated for angle closure glaucoma, while medications are used to treat primary open-angle glaucoma by lowering intraocular pressure. The main classes of medications mentioned are beta blockers, carbonic anhydrase inhibitors, alpha agonists, sympathomimetics, prostaglandin analogues, and parasympathomimetics; each works by a different mechanism to reduce aqueous humor production or increase outflow to lower pressure in the eye.
Week 10 objective
The document discusses different types of central nervous system (CNS) tumors. It classifies CNS tumors into gliomas, neuronal tumors, other parenchymal tumors, poorly differentiated neoplasms, meningioma, and schwannoma. For the 35-year-old man, chemotherapy and radiotherapy were given for a cerebral hemisphere mass found on MRI after headaches and left arm weakness, and he passed away 11 months later, suggesting a high-grade glioma like glioblastoma. For the 5-year-old boy who had tremors and ataxia, the tumor was surgically resected and found to be GFAP-positive with Rosenthal fibers, consistent with pilocytic astrocyt
Presentation week 8
This document summarizes different classes of drugs used to treat depression, including SSRIs, SNRIs, TCAs, MAOIs, and atypical antidepressants. It describes the mechanisms of action, therapeutic uses, examples of drugs, and potential adverse effects for each class. Key points covered include that SSRIs work by inhibiting serotonin reuptake and it takes 4-6 weeks to see effects, TCAs also inhibit norepinephrine reuptake and are used for depression with accompanying pain, and MAOIs non-selectively inhibit MAO enzymes and their use requires avoiding foods high in tyramine to prevent dangerous interactions.
Week 7 presentation
- Salem, a 66-year-old businessman, started experiencing forgetfulness 18 months ago and got lost on a walk 5 days prior. Brain imaging showed signs of Alzheimer's disease.
- The objectives of the document are to discuss memory physiology, dementia types and causes like Alzheimer's, signs and symptoms of confusion and forgetfulness, investigative tools, and management of Alzheimer's.
- Alzheimer's is characterized by brain changes like amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles seen on autopsy as well as hypometabolism on PET imaging, and is the most common cause of dementia.
Anatomy of the cerebral circulation Week 5 objective
This document contains diagrams and descriptions of the major arteries of the brain and their branches. It outlines the anatomy and blood supply of the cerebral circulation, labeling the internal carotid, vertebral, basilar, anterior cerebral, middle cerebral, posterior cerebral and other arteries. It also provides information about clinical syndromes that can result from lesions or occlusions of specific arteries like the posterior cerebral artery.
Article week 3
1) The study assessed the incidence of coagulopathy in patients with moderate and severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) and identified risk factors for coagulopathy and poor outcomes.
2) Coagulopathy was present in 46% of patients and was more common in those with severe TBI (61%) than moderate TBI (30%). Risk factors for coagulopathy included effaced basal cisterns on CT scan and elevated D-dimer and lactate levels.
3) Risk factors for poor outcomes, including lower survival time, were severe TBI, midline shift, coagulopathy, high DIC score, and acidosis. Patients with coagulopathy, high DIC score, and
Week 4 objective
Brain waves can be categorized into different types based on their frequency: alpha waves occur between 8-13 Hz and indicate a resting but awake state with eyes closed; beta waves range from 14-30 Hz and relate to an alert and conscious state; theta waves are between 4-7 Hz and associate with light sleep or a subconscious state; delta waves below 3.5 Hz happen during deep, dreamless sleep or unconsciousness.
Week objective 3
Unconsciousness is defined as an interruption of awareness of oneself and one's surroundings, lacking the ability to notice or respond to stimuli. Unconsciousness can last from a few seconds during fainting to longer periods of time. Common causes of unconsciousness include trauma, swelling, bleeding, stroke, changes in blood sugar, oxygen deprivation, infection, toxins, and seizures. The reticular formation in the brainstem determines which incoming sensory information is important to send to higher brain regions. It receives information from all senses and relays it throughout the cortex. Damage to the reticular activating system can lead to a deep coma state.
Gram staining, Culture , Antimicrobial sensitivity test
This document provides information on techniques used to identify bacteria from clinical samples, including gram staining to differentiate bacteria by cell wall type, observing cell morphology and arrangement under a microscope, growing bacteria in controlled laboratory conditions using various culture media, and testing antibiotic sensitivity using the Kirby-Bauer method to determine the most effective antibiotic treatment. Examples of bacteria identified by these techniques include Neisseria meningitidis, Haemophilus influenzae, Streptococcus agalactiae, and Streptococcus pneumoniae.
Investigations in syringomyelia
The document discusses electromyography (EMG) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) tests for investigating syringomyelia. EMG involves nerve conduction studies to evaluate nerve health and function, and intramuscular electrode tests to examine muscle health and innervation. Nerve conduction studies measure how fast electrical signals move through nerves, while EMG directly detects electrical activity in muscles. MRI is used to visualize the spinal cord and detect syrinx cavities associated with syringomyelia.
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Promoting Wellbeing - Applied Social Psychology - Psychology SuperNotes
Week 5 objective
- 2. Normal synovial fluid Normal synovial fluid is: • An ultra-filtrate of plasma • Has no clotting factors • Is viscous • Is acellular • Is aparticulate
- 3. Why do we do it ? 1. Helps in referring the patient to the right specialist : non-inflammatory : orthopedic , inflammatory : rheumatology 2. Diagnosis : inflammatory vs non-inflammatory , crystals vs exacerbations , prosthetic failure 3. Prognosis : stage of particular disease , orthopedic intervention 4. Monitor therapy 5. Research
- 4. Examining the SF specimen • Gross analysis • Nucleated cell count • The “wet prep” • Preparation and examination of the stained cell monolayer
- 5. Gross analysis • Color Haemorrhagic episode : trauma , mild trauma in antico- agulant therapy, bleeding due to pigmented villonodular synovitis. • Clarity Cloudy / opaque appearance indicates presence of crystals , proteins , lipids , increased cellular components • Viscosity
- 6. Nucleated cell count • The number of nucleated cells contained in the SF is a prime indicator of inflammation. • Cell count is less than 500/ mm3 the patient can be assumed to have a non-inflammatory arthropathy • Cell count is greater than 1500 this would indicate an inflammatory arthropathy.
- 7. The “wet prep” • It is basically used to identify crystals and debris
- 8. Crystals Using polarizing microscopy MSU CPPD bright birefringent crystals that are yellow (negatively birefringent) shorter rod shape and often they are rhomboidal or cube shaped. They are.
- 9. Preparation and examination of the stained cell monolayer Using gram-stain of cytological stains to identify cells and organisms