The Global Positioning System is a satellite-based radio navigation system for determination of precise position and time, using radio signals from the satellites, in real-time or in post-processing mode.
Tunnelling is a serious engineering project.
In addition to large investment cost, the challenges related to long and deep tunnels are considerable.
Important aspects which needs to be considered are related to the construction works, geology, environment and operation. his module highlights all these aspects.
The Global Positioning System is a satellite-based radio navigation system for determination of precise position and time, using radio signals from the satellites, in real-time or in post-processing mode.
Tunnelling is a serious engineering project.
In addition to large investment cost, the challenges related to long and deep tunnels are considerable.
Important aspects which needs to be considered are related to the construction works, geology, environment and operation. his module highlights all these aspects.
Types of dams, geological considerations in site selection, Competency of Rocks to offer stable dam foundation, effect of geological structures on dam, selection of dam site, Reservoir, purpose of reservoir, influence of water table, geological structures, life of reservoir, geophysical studies
identification of ground water potential zones using gis and remote sensingtp jayamohan
the identification of ground water potential zones using gis and remote sensing.The study is conducted in the Muvattupuzha block.The various parameters used are geology,geomorphology,rainfall,soil type,etc.
What is a Total Station?
Capability of a Total Station
Important Operations of Total Station
Uses of Total Station
Advantages of Using Total Stations
Applications
A small description about the principle and operation of widely used instrument 'Total Station' in Civil Engineering and Global Positioning System through a technical view...!
This presentation is useful for GTU students in Building Construction subject in Subsurface investigation the popular topic in syllabus, this includes more images which will help to students & researchers for same.
Various field of civil engineering concerned with geology,
Summery of applications,
FAQ’s,
Suggested Readings,
Standard References for Indian Students,Geology in Civil Engineering ,Geo technical Investigation, Site Selection, Geology in Mega projects, Geology in Ground water, Geology in Hydrology, Geology in Foundation of Structures, Geology- References, Geology for Construction Engineering
Wetlands exist along the borders of water courses and water bodies, in topographically low lying areas. Wetlands are the interfaces between land and water. This module explains the importance of wetlands as promising ecosystems.
Types of dams, geological considerations in site selection, Competency of Rocks to offer stable dam foundation, effect of geological structures on dam, selection of dam site, Reservoir, purpose of reservoir, influence of water table, geological structures, life of reservoir, geophysical studies
identification of ground water potential zones using gis and remote sensingtp jayamohan
the identification of ground water potential zones using gis and remote sensing.The study is conducted in the Muvattupuzha block.The various parameters used are geology,geomorphology,rainfall,soil type,etc.
What is a Total Station?
Capability of a Total Station
Important Operations of Total Station
Uses of Total Station
Advantages of Using Total Stations
Applications
A small description about the principle and operation of widely used instrument 'Total Station' in Civil Engineering and Global Positioning System through a technical view...!
This presentation is useful for GTU students in Building Construction subject in Subsurface investigation the popular topic in syllabus, this includes more images which will help to students & researchers for same.
Various field of civil engineering concerned with geology,
Summery of applications,
FAQ’s,
Suggested Readings,
Standard References for Indian Students,Geology in Civil Engineering ,Geo technical Investigation, Site Selection, Geology in Mega projects, Geology in Ground water, Geology in Hydrology, Geology in Foundation of Structures, Geology- References, Geology for Construction Engineering
Wetlands exist along the borders of water courses and water bodies, in topographically low lying areas. Wetlands are the interfaces between land and water. This module explains the importance of wetlands as promising ecosystems.
Climate change is both a development issue and an environmental issue. Developing countries are more vulnerable to climate change than rich countries. CC may be limited to a specific region, or it may occur across the whole Earth.
It can be caused by recurring and cyclical climate patterns.
The causes of climate change are many. There is a need to understand these factors for reducing the effects.
This topic includes representation of topography by various non mathematical and mathematical methods.
Pictorial method (Hachure lines, Hill shading)
Mathematical method (Spot heights,Bench marks, Trigonometrical stations, Layer tint or altitude tints, Contour lines )
Combination of different methods
Contour maps: preparation and understanding.VIVEK CHAUHAN
The theme behind preparation of contour maps, various projections of topographical features, the processor making them and methods used in their making.
E-content is a Comprehensive package of teaching material put into hypermedia format. Hypermedia is multimedia with internet deplorability. E-content can not be created by a teaching faculty alone . It needs the role of teacher, Video editor, production assistants, web developers (HTML 5 or Adobe captivate, etc). Analyze the learner needs and goals of the instructional material development, development of a delivery system and content, pilot study of the material developed, implementation, evaluating, refining the materials etc. In designing and development of E-content we have to adopt one of the instructional design models based on our requirements.
Pedagogy is the most commonly understood approach to teaching. It refers to the theory and practice of learning. Pedagogy is often described as the act of teaching. Pedagogy has little variations between traditional teaching and online teaching. Online teaching pedagogy is a method of effective teaching practice specifically developed for teaching via the internet. It has a set of prescribed methods, strategies, and practices for teaching academic subjects in an online (or blended) environment, where students are in a physical location separate from the faculty member.
Technology has changed the possibilities within teaching and learning. Classes, which prior to the digital era were restricted to lectures, talks, and physical objects, no longer have to be designed in that manner. Training in a synchronous virtual classroom can only be successful with the active participation and engagement of the learners. Explore the Virtual Classroom’s features and see how they can support and enhance your tutoring style.
• The monitoring and evaluation of the institutional processes require a carefully structured system of internal and external review. The NAAC expects the Institutions to undertake continuous Academic and Administrative Audits (AAA). This presentation is intended to serve as advisory to all accredited HEIs who volunteer to undertake AAA. The pros and cons of this process are also highlighted. Academic and Administrative Audit is the process of evaluating the efficiency and effectiveness of the administrative procedure. It includes assessment of policies, strategies & functions of the various administrative departments, control of the overall administrative system, etc. This checklist gives an overview what the audit committee members may look into while visiting an institution for this purpose. It invariably follows the Quality Indicators Framework prescribed by Accreditation Council in India.
• The monitoring and evaluation of the institutional processes require a carefully structured system of internal and external review. The NAAC expects the Institutions to undertake continuous Academic and Administrative Audits (AAA). This presentation is intended to serve as advisory to all accredited HEIs who volunteer to undertake AAA.
Chemical analysis data of water samples can not be used directly for understanding. They are to be used for various calculations in order to determine the quality parameters that have a lot of significances. A. Balasubramanian and D. Nagaraju, of the Department of Studies in Earth Science, Centre for Advanced Studies, University of Mysore, Mysore-570006, Karnataka, India have recently brought out a software and its application manual as a good book for reference and execution. The Name of the software is WATCHIT meaning Water Chemistry Interpretation Techniques. This software computes more than 100 parameters pertaining to water quality interpretations. The software follows its own method of approach to determine the required results. Systems International Units are used. Limited input parameters are required. This is suitable for all scientific research, government water quality data interpretations and for understanding the quality of water before using it.
Water conservation refers to reducing the usage of water and recycling of waste water for different purposes like domestic usage, industries, agriculture etc. This technical article highlights most of the popular methods of water conservation. A special note on rainwater harvesting is also provided.
This module gives an overview of general applications of current hydrogeological aspects. It is for the basic understanding of students and research scholars.
Climate Extreme (extreme weather or climate event) refers to the occurrence of a value of a weather or climate variable above (or below) a threshold value near the upper (or lower) ends of the range of observed values of the variable. Extreme weather and climate events, interacting with exposed and vulnerable human and natural systems, can lead to disasters.
WATER RESOURCES PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT POSSIBILITIES IN CHAMARAJANAGAR TALUK...Prof. A.Balasubramanian
Any unplanned development and utilization of water resources with result in water scarcity. In many parts of the developing world. Such a situation exists. In order to do proper planning and
management of water resources, it is necessary to conduct detailed analyses of the factors, which influence the water availability and its uses. In the present study, a comprehensive analysis have been undertaken for proper utilization of water resources in Chamarajanagar Taluk, which has been identified as one of the drought hit districts of Karnataka, in India. The factors analysed in this work are, surface and groundwater availability, land use, cropping pattern, recharge potential of soils and the rainfall pattern in typical areas of Taluk. It is observed that the problem of water scarcity is mainly due to the lack of irrigation planning and management. Hence, a
modified cropping pattern is suggested by taking into consideration of all available water resources and other conditions.
In broad terms, cultural geography examines the cultural values, practices, discursive and material expressions and artefacts of people, the cultural diversity and plurality of society.
It also emphasizes on how cultures are distributed over space, how places and identities are produced, how people make sense of places and build senses of place, and how people produce and communicate knowledge and meaning.
Minerals are formed by changes in chemical energy in systems which contain one fluid or vapor phase. In nature, minerals are formed by crystallisation or precipitation from concentrated solutions. These solutions are called as ore-bearing fluids. Ore-bearing fluids are characterised by high concentration of certain metallic or other elements.
Fluids are the most effective agents for the transport of material in the mantle and the Earth's crust.
Soils are complex mixers forming the skin of the earth's surface. Soil is a dynamic layer in which many complex chemical, physical and biological activities are going on constantly. Soils become adjusted to conditions of climate, landform and vegetation, and will change internally when those controlling conditions change. Soils are products of weathering. Soils play a dominant role in earth's geomorphic processes in a cyclic manner. The characteristics of soils are very essential for several reasons. This module highlights these characteristics.
GIS TECHNIQUES IN WATER RESOURCES PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT IN CHAMARAJANAGAR ...Prof. A.Balasubramanian
The over-exploitation and contamination of groundwater continue to threaten the long-term sustainability of our precious water resources, in spite of the best efforts made by various agencies.
This has many serious implications to the economic development of a country like India. Lack of
judicious planning and integration of environmental consideration to ground water development
projects are primarily responsible for such a state of affair in the ground water sector. Geographical Information Systems could be of immense help in planning sustainable ground water management strategies, especially in hard rock areas with limited ground water potential. Data collected from
Satellite Imagery and through field investigations have been integrated, on a GIS platform, for demarcation and prioritization of areas suitable for ground water development and ground water augmentation. An attempt has also been made to assess the vulnerability of the area to ground water
contamination. This paper demonstrates the utility of GIS in planning judicious management of ground water resources in a typical hard rock area of Chamarajanagar Taluk, Karnataka, state India.
Nanobiomaterials are very effective components for several biomedical and pharmaceutical studies. Among the metallic, organic, ceramic and polymeric nanomaterials, metallic nanomaterials have shown certain prominent biomedical applications. Enormous works have been done to synthesize, analyse and administer the metallic nanoparticles for various kinds of medical and therapeutic applications, during the last forty years. In these analyses, the prominent biomedical applications of ten metallic nanobiomaterials have been reviewed from various sources and works. It has been found that almost nine of them are used in a very wide spectrum of medical and theranostic applications.
A variety of Nano-biomaterials are synthesised, characterised and tested to find out their potentialities by global scientific communities, during the last three decades. Among those, nanostructured ceramics, cements and coatings are being considered for major use in orthopaedic, dental and other medical applications. The development of novel biocompatible ceramic materials with improved biomedical functions is at the forefront of health-related applications, all over the world. Understanding of the potential biomedical applications of ceramic nanomaterials will provide a major insight into the future developments. This study reviews and enlists the prominent potential biomedical applications of ceramic nanomaterials, like Calcium Phosphate (CaP), Tri-Calcium Phosphate (TCP), Hydroxy-Apatite(HAP), TCP+HAP, Si substituted HAP, Calcium Sulphate and Carbonate, Bioactive Glasses, Bioactive Glass Ceramics, Titania-Based Ceramics, Zirconia Ceramics, Alumina Ceramcis and Ceramic Polymer Composites.
The present forest and tree cover of the country is 78.37 million ha in 2007 which is 23.84% of the geographical areas and it includes 2.82% tree cover. This becomes 25.25%, if the areas above tree line i.e., 4000m are excluded from the total geographical area. The forest cover is classified into 3 canopy density classes.
1. Very Dense Forest (VDF) with canopy density more than 70%
2. Moderately Dense Forest (MDF) with Canopy density between 40-70% and
3. Open Forest (OF) with Canopy density between 10-40%
The entire country was fully analysed and mapped for identifying the wastelands. Among all the states, the districts which have more than 15% area under wasteland were identified for detailed mapping. In order to assess the nature and propose of rejuvenating the wastelands, a common classification system has been adopted.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Unveiling the Energy Potential of Marshmallow Deposits.pdf
Use of toposheets in civil engineering projects
1. USE OF TOPOSHEETS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING PROJECTS
ARJUN. K & DR.A.BALASUBRAMANIAN
DOS IN EARTH SCIENCE
UNIVERSITY OF MYSORE
2. Contents
• Introduction
• Contour
• Contour interval
• Types of slope
• Topographic survey
• Types of Landforms
• Use of Toposheets in Civil Engineering Projects
• Conclusion
• Reference
3. Introduction
• Topographic maps are detailed,accurate graphic representation of
features that appear on the Earth’s surface.These features include:
1.Cultural:roads,buildings,urban development,railways,state and
international borders
2.Hydrography:lakes,rivers,streams,swamps and coastal flats
3.Relief:mountains,valleys,hills,contours,cliffs and depression
4.Vegetation:wooded and cleared areas,vineyards and orchards
4.
5. Contour
• An imaginary line on the ground
surface joining the points of
equal elevation is known as
contour.
• The lines are numbered giving
the height above sea level in
meters.
• The process of tracing contour
lines on the surface of the earth
is called Contouring.
6. Characteristics of Contour line
• A contour line is drawn to show places of equal heights.
• Contour lines and their shapes represent the height and slope or
gradient of the landform.
• Closely spaced contours represent steep slopes while widely spaced
contours represent gentle slope.
• Two contours of different elevation usually do not cross each other.
7. Contour Interval
• The vertical distance between
any two consecutive contour
lines is called contour interval.
• The contour interval depends on
the nature of the
ground(i.e.whether flat or steep)
8. Types of slope
Gentle slope:
• When the degree or angle of
slope of a feature is very low,the
slope will be gentle.
• The contours representing this
type of slope are far apart.
Steep slope:
• When the degree or angle of
slope of a feature is high,the
slope will be steep.
• The contours are closely
spaced,they indicate steep
slope.
11. Topographic survey
• Topographic survey is a field of geoscience which deals in the study
and description of surface shape and features of the earth.
Topography in general is related with mapping of the local details
such as relief and natural/artificial features.
12. Types of Landforms
Conical Hill
• A conical hill with uniform
uniform slope and narrow top
represented by concentric
contours,spaced almost at
regualar intervals.
13. Plateau
• A widely stretched flat-topped
high land with relatively steeper
slopes.
14. V – shaped valley
• V – shaped valley occurs in mountainous areas.
• The lowermost part of this valley is shown by the innermost contour
line with small contour interval.
• The contour value increases with uniform intervals for all other
contour lines outward.
15. U-shaped Valley
• A U-shaped valley is formed by strong lateral erosion of glaciers at
high altitudes.The flat wide bottom and steep sides makes it resemble
the letter ‘U’.
• The lowermost part of the U-shaped valley is shown by the innermost
contour line with a wide gap between its two sides.
16. Gradient of Terrain
• Topographic map allows the calculation of the gradient of a terrain.
• This process requires taking the difference in height between two
points and dividing by distance between these points.
• One useful application of this formula is for calculating the flow of a
river down a mountain
17. USE OF TOPOSHEETS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING PROJECTS
1. Toposheet provide valuable information about the topography of
area,whether it is flat,undulating or mountainous.The nature of the
ground surface of an area can be understood by studying topographic
map.
2. By drawing the section in the plan,it is possible to find out profile of
the ground along the line.It helps in finding out depth of cutting and
filling,if formation level of road/railway is decided.
3. The routes of the railway,road,canal or sewer lines can be decided so
as to minimize and balance earthworks.
18. 4. Catchment area and hence quantity of water flow at any point of
river can be found.This study is very important in locating bunds,dams
and also to find out flood levels.
5. From the contours,it is possible to determine the capacity of a
reservoir.
19. DAMS
• A narrow U- shaped valley, i.e., a narrow stream flowing between
high rocky walls, would suggest a concrete flow dam.
• A low plain country, would suggest an earth fill dam with separate
spillways.
• A narrow V-shaped valley indicates the choice of an Arch dam.
• After studying the topography of the site and catchment area, it is
possible to fix the height of the dam and reservoir capacity . Steep
shoulder hills across the rivers may be suitable site for location of the
proposed dam.
20.
21. ROAD ALIGNMENT
• Class and purpose
• Obligatory points
• Gradient
• Horizontal curves
• Obstructions
• Cross drainage works
• Bridges
• Railway crossing
• Agricultural land and dense forests
22. BRIDGE
• Local terrain and site condition
• A straight reach of river.
One cross section each cross the
river at the selected sites can be
taken.
• Catchment area – used mainly
for the flood analysis.
23. BUILDING
• It is very important for the
building site to avoid low-lying
areas with flooding potential.
• Adequate drainage to control
storm water.
• Slope analysis
• Cultural factors
• Natural features
24. TUNNELS
• The underground routes are called tunnels.These are
provided,particularly in hilly regions,to cut down distance and save
time for the traffic.
• The physiography of the area is the first thing to be investigated.It
involves a knowledge of valleys,hills,slopes and other physical
features.This tell about the possible locations for the alignment of
tunnel.
26. CONCLUSION
• A topographic map furnishes information regarding the features of
the ground,whether it is flat,undulating or mountainous.
• A civil engineer studies the contours and find out the nature of the
ground to identify.Suitable site for the project works to be taken up.
• It enables an engineer to approximately select the most economical
or suitable site for an engineering project such as a road, a railway, a
canal or a pipeline etc.
• Catchment area and capacity of a reservoir may be determined from
the contour map.
27. REFERENCE
• D.Venkat Reddy-Engineering Geology-Vikas publishing pvt ltd(page
no:326 – 328)
• Dr.D.S.Arora-Geology For Engineers-Mohindra Capital
Publishers(page no:332-347)
• K.M.Bangar-Principles of Engineering Geology-Standard
Publishers(page no:362-371)
• http://geology.about.com/use of toposheets in civiengineering.htm
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/toposheet