This document provides an overview of tuberculosis (TB) including epidemiology, microbiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, and clinical manifestations. Some key points:
- TB is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis and infects millions worldwide each year, with the highest burden in developing countries. Latent TB infections are common, with billions of people infected globally.
- Active TB most commonly presents as pulmonary disease but can disseminate to many organ systems. Primary TB typically causes asymptomatic lymph node infection while post-primary TB reactivates from latent foci and may be smear-positive.
- Diagnosis involves acid-fast staining of sputum, culture, imaging like chest X-ray, and tuber
This Nursing care plan is based on the format of Indian nursing council according in which assessment points aren't included. The hepatitis B is a most dangerous diseases condition and it's Incubation period, 2 to 3 months.Prodronal symptoms (insidious onset): fatigue, anorexia,
transient fever, abdominal discomfort, nausea, vomiting,
headache.May also have myalgias, photophobia, arthritis, angioedema,
urticaria, maculopapular rash, vasculitis. Icteric phase occurs 1 week to 2 months after onset of
symptoms.
A complete physical examination including anthropometric measurements is performed at each visit. Pediatric residents and nurses provide breastfeeding counselling. ... A locally manufactured standard measuring board, with increments in millimeters, is used to measure supine length
This Nursing care plan is based on the format of Indian nursing council according in which assessment points aren't included. The hepatitis B is a most dangerous diseases condition and it's Incubation period, 2 to 3 months.Prodronal symptoms (insidious onset): fatigue, anorexia,
transient fever, abdominal discomfort, nausea, vomiting,
headache.May also have myalgias, photophobia, arthritis, angioedema,
urticaria, maculopapular rash, vasculitis. Icteric phase occurs 1 week to 2 months after onset of
symptoms.
A complete physical examination including anthropometric measurements is performed at each visit. Pediatric residents and nurses provide breastfeeding counselling. ... A locally manufactured standard measuring board, with increments in millimeters, is used to measure supine length
he WHO Global Tuberculosis Report 2022 provides a comprehensive and up-to-date assessment of the TB epidemic and of progress in prevention, diagnosis and treatment of the disease, at global, regional and country levels.
he WHO Global Tuberculosis Report 2022 provides a comprehensive and up-to-date assessment of the TB epidemic and of progress in prevention, diagnosis and treatment of the disease, at global, regional and country levels.
How is COPD and Nutrition Overlapped and Affecting Each Other
How to Solve the Problem as a Part of Pulmonary Rehabilitation
The Presentation is Discussing these items in the form of Problem Solving
What are the main sleeping disorders and what are the sleeping disorders related to respiratory system ? how to deal with it and how to diagnose and treat?
Pediatrics notes about "Tuberculosis". These notes were published in 2018.
You can download them also from
- Telegram: https://t.me/pediatric_notes_2018
- Mediafire: http://www.mediafire.com/folder/u5u60m184t9z7/Pediatric_Notes_2018
Intro to TB
epidemiology of TB
Structure of Mycobacterium TB
pathogenesis of TB
Immunosuppression by Mycobacterium TB
types of TB
Clinical manifestation
Diagnosis
Treatment
Oxygen Therapy is not Beneficial in COPD Patients with Moderate HypoxaemiaGamal Agmy
A Randomized Trial of Long-Term Oxygen for COPD with Moderate Desaturation
The Long-Term Oxygen Treatment Trial Research Group*
N Engl J Med. 2016 October 27; 375(17): 1617–1627
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Anti ulcer drugs and their Advance pharmacology ||
Anti-ulcer drugs are medications used to prevent and treat ulcers in the stomach and upper part of the small intestine (duodenal ulcers). These ulcers are often caused by an imbalance between stomach acid and the mucosal lining, which protects the stomach lining.
||Scope: Overview of various classes of anti-ulcer drugs, their mechanisms of action, indications, side effects, and clinical considerations.
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
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4. *The increasing prevalence of
tuberculosis in both immunocompetent
and immunocompromised individuals
in recent years makes this disease a
topic of universal concern.
Introduction
5. *Because tuberculosis demonstrates
a variety of clinical and radiologic
findings and has a known propensity
for dissemination from its primary
site, it can mimic numerous other
disease entities..
Introduction
6.
7. *The World Health Organization (WHO)
estimates that each year more than
8 million new cases of tuberculosis occur
and approximately 3 million persons die
from the disease.
*Ninety-five percent of tuberculosis cases
occur in developing countries.
*It is estimated that between 19 and 43% of
the world's population is infected with
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the
bacterium that causes tuberculosis
infection and disease
Epidemiology
8.
9. Epidemiology
Most cases in the US are due to reactivation,
especially amongst immigrants
Highest risk of progression to active TB is within
2 years of seroconversion
Increase in incidence in late 1980s-early 90s
largely due to HIV
Needs to be reported to the health department
10.
11. Microbiology
Aerobic
Bacillus (rod-shaped)
Non-spore forming
Non-motile
Cell wall – mycolic acid – retains acid fast
stain
Growth - doubling time of 15-20 hrs.
3-8 weeks for growth on solid media
12. TB Skin Testing
PPD – purified protein derivative of
tuberculin (antigenic)
Delayed type hypersensitivity reaction
PPD may not become “positive” until 3
months after exposure
Boosting effect
13.
14.
15.
16.
17. Skin Test Interpretation
PPD >/= 5 mm:
– HIV patients
– Recent contacts of someone with TB
– Fibrotic changes on CXR c/w prior TB
– Organ transplant recipients
– Immunosuppressed (includes patients
receiving the equivalent of 15 mg/day or
more of prednisone for one month or
more)
18. Skin Test Interpretation
PPD >/= 10 mm:
– Recent immigrants (< 5 years) from high
prevalence areas (Eastern Europe, Latin
America, Asia, Africa)
– IV drug users
– Residents and employees of high risk facilities
(hospitals, nursing homes, homeless shelters,
prisons)
– Children < 4 years of age
– Mycobacteriology lab personnel
19. Skin Test Interpretation
PPD >/= 10 mm:
– People with medical conditions that place
them at high risk for active TB
Chronic renal failure
Diabetes mellitus
Silicosis
Leukemias/lymphomas
Carcinoma of the head/neck or lung
Weight loss > 10% of ideal body weight
Gastrectomy/jejunoileal bypass
20. Skin Test Interpretation
PPD >/= 15 mm:
– Low risk people
– Routine tuberculin testing not
recommended for low risk populations
22. BCG
Bacille Calmette-Guerin vaccination:
Live attenuated mycobacterial strain derived
from M. bovis
Can yield false positives to PPD – less likely
as time from vaccination increases
Reactions > 20 mm likely are true
CDC advises that the PPD be interpreted by
the same guidelines (ignore the BCG history)
23. Quantiferon Testing
Whole blood in vitro test:
– Lymphocytes release IFN gamma in
presence of 2 TB antigens
Will be positive in latent or active TB
Advantages:
– No error in interpretation
– No follow-up in 48-72 hours
– No boosting
– Not affected by BCG
24. Quantiferon Testing
Disadvantages:
– Must be processed within 12 hours of
collection
– False + with atypical mycobacteria
– Too many indeterminate results with
current version (Q-Gold)
– May be less reliable in pregnant women,
children, and immunocompromised
– Does not distinguish between active and
latent TB
26. QUANTITATION SCALE FOR ACID-FAST BACILLUS
SMEARS ACCORDING TO STAIN USED
Carbolfuchsin (× 1,000)
Fluorochrome
(× 250)
Quantity Reported
No AFB/300 fields No AFB/30 fields No AFB seen
1-2 AFB/300 fields 1-2 AFB/30 fields Doubtful, repeat
test
1-9 AFB/100 fields 1-9 AFB/10 fields Rare (1+)
1-9 AFB/10 fields 1-9 AFB/field Few (2+)
1-9 AFB/field 10-90 AFB/field Moderate (3+)
> 9 AFB/field > 90 AFB/field Numerous (4+)
27. Zeil-Neelson Staining
Wire 0.01 ml of specimen 200mm2 slide
Oil immersion field 0.02mm
Slide=10000 field=0.01ml specimen
10,000 organism/slide=1 AFB/field=1000,000 organism/ml
1000 organism/slide=1 AFB/10 field=100,000 organism/ml
100 organism/slide=1 AFB/100field=10,000 organism/ml
28. QUANTITATION SCALE FOR ACID-FAST BACILLUS
SMEARS ACCORDING TO STAIN USED
Carbolfuchsin (× 1,000)
Fluorochrome
(× 250)
Quantity Reported
No AFB/300 fields No AFB/30 fields No AFB seen
1-2 AFB/300 fields 1-2 AFB/30 fields Doubtful, repeat
test
1-9 AFB/100 fields 1-9 AFB/10 fields Rare (1+)
1-9 AFB/10 fields 1-9 AFB/field Few (2+)
1-9 AFB/field 10-90 AFB/field Moderate (3+)
> 9 AFB/field > 90 AFB/field Numerous (4+)
29. Cultures:
- Lowenstein Jensen media: 6-8
weeks.
-Bactec media: 2-8days. Radiolabelled 14c
labelled palmitic acid
-Mycobacterial growth indicator tube:
Middbrook broth+o2 sensitive fluroscent sensor to
indicate growth& bacilli can be identified by Gen
Probe method at the same day of detection.
30. Diagnosis of Active TB
Acid fast stain of sputum
Sputum AFB culture (culture needed
for drug susceptibility)
Radiographic imaging (CXR, CT)
PCR/NAT
Fluid Aspiration
Tissue biopsy – higher yield than fluid
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36. Transmission
Transmitted by airborne particles 1-5
microns in size
Ease of transmission depends on duration
and proximity of contact as well as the
number of bacteria excreted
Infection can result from only 1-5 bacteria
entering a terminal alveolus
Only those with active pulmonary TB are
infectious
37. *M tuberculosis is transmitted via airborne
droplet nuclei that are produced when
persons with pulmonary or laryngeal TB
cough, sneeze, speak, or sing .
* Droplet nuclei may be produced by aerosol
treatments, sputum induction,aerosolization
during bronchoscopy, and through
manipulation of lesions or processing of
tissue or secretions in the hospital or
laboratory.
38. Pathogenesis
– Inhalation -> phagocytosis by alveolar
macrophages
– Bacterial multiplication occurs intracellularly
– Lymphatic spread to regional lymph nodes or
hematogenous dissemination
– Immune response results in granuloma formation
(containment of infection)
– Cell death in the granuloma results in caseous
necrosis
– Bacteria can remain dormant in the granuloma
39.
40. Pathogenesis
– Medical conditions that increase risk for
active TB:
Chronic renal failure
Diabetes mellitus
Silicosis
Leukemias/lymphomas
Carcinoma of the head/neck or lung
Weight loss > 10% of ideal body weight
Gastrectomy/jejunoileal bypass
41.
42.
43. Primary pulmonary tuberculosis
*The first infection with tubercle bacillus.
Includes the involvement of the draining
lymph nodes in addition to the initial
lesion(Ghon).
44. Clinical features:
Majority: symptomless.(specially in
young adults)
Brief febrile illness.
Loss of appetite.
Failure to gain weight in children.
Cough is not unusual and may mimic
paroxysm of whooping cough.
45. Physical signs:
•May be normal,
•Crepitation may be heard.
•Primary lesion could be
heard.
•Segmental or lobar collapse
may occur.
46. Radiological features:
•Lymphadenoathy: hilar lymph nodes
are most commonly involved rarely
paratracheal.Calciflcation of the nodes
may occur.
• Pulmonary componant: ( mainly in
adults) segmental or lobar
consolidation or obstructive
emphysema.
•Resolution of radiological shadow 6m-
2ys.
47. Diagnosis:
*Vague ill health with history of contact.
* X-ray.
*Tuberclin test: is usually strongly
positive.
*Sputum and gastric lavage for direct
smear and culture helpful in 20-25% of
cases.
* DNA amplification: PCR.
48. Primary pulmonary tuberculosis
Primary pulmonary TB typically
manifests radiologically as parenchymal
disease, lymphadenopathy, pleural
effusion, miliary disease, or lobar or
segmental atelectasis.
49. Consolidation in primary tuberculosis. Frontal chest radiograph
demonstrates consolidation in the right middle lobe (straight
arrow) with right hilar adenopathy (curved arrow).
50. Tuberculomas in primary
tuberculosis. Frontal X-ray
of the right lung
demonstrates well-defined
nodules(arrows), findings
that are consistent with
tuberculomas.
51. Pulmonary parenchymal changes and lymphadenopathy in primary
tuberculosis. Axial contrast material–enhanced computed
tomographic (CT) scan demonstrates a parenchymal lung cavity in
the lingula (solid white arrow) with enlarged necrotic subcarinal
lymph nodes (black arrows). There is accompanying collapse of
the left lower lobe (open arrow).
52. Mediastinal TB adenopathy.Axial contrast-enhanced CT
scan demonstrates multiple enlarged mediastinal lymph
nodes with centralareas of low attenuation and peripheral
enhancement (arrows).
53. Pleural effusion. Axial contrast-enhanced CT scan
demonstrates a large, right-sided pleural collection.The
enhancing parietal pleura is uniformly thickened (arrows).
55. Miliary tuberculosis. High-resolution CT scan obtained with
lung windowing demonstrates numerous fine, discrete nodules
bilaterally in a random distribution
56.
57. Post primary pulmonary tuberculosis
The most important type of tuberculosis
because it is the most frequent and
smear positive sputum is the main
source of infection responsible for the
persistence of the disease in the
community.
58. Source;
1. Direct progression of the primary
lesion.
2. Reactivation of the quiescent primary
or post primary.
3. Exogenous infection.
59. Predisposing factors for reactivation:
1. Malnutrition.
2. Poor housing and overcrowding.
3. Steroid and other immunosuppressive
drugs.
4. Alcoholism.
5.Other diseases: HIV malignancy,
lymphomas , Leukaemia,Diabetes.
60. Clinical features:
Mainly in middle aged and elderly.
A-Symptoms:
1. May be no symptoms, or just mild debility.
Gradual onset of symptoms over weeks or months.
2. General malaise.
3. Loss of appetite, loss of weight.
4. Febrile course.
5. Night sweating.
6. Cough with or without sputum.
7. Sputum could be mucoid, purulent or blood stained.
8. Could be presented with frank haemoptysis.
9. Tuberculous pneunonia.
61. B-Signs:
1. May be no signs.
2. Pallor, cachexia.
3. Fever.
4. Post tussive crepitations on the apices.
5. Signs of Consolidation.
6. Signs of fibrosis.
7. Signs of cavitary lesion.
8. Localised wheezes in endobronchial
tuberculosis
62. Postprimary Tuberculosis
Postprimary disease results from reactivation of a
previously dormant primary infection in 90% of cases;
in a minority of cases, it represents continuation of the
primary disease . Postprimary tuberculosis is almost
exclusively a disease of adolescence and adulthood.
63. Cavitary postprimary tuberculosis. (Frontal radiograph
demonstrates a thick-walled cavity with smooth inner
margins in the left upper lobe (arrow).
64. Axial contrast-enhanced CT scan obtained with mediastinal
windowing demonstrates an enlarged mediastinal lymph node
with a central area of low attenuation (arrow).
65. Axial CT scan obtained with lung windowing demonstrates ill-
defined cavities (black arrows) accompanied by endobronchial
spread in the right upper lobe (white arrow).
66. Fibroproliferative disease. Axial CT scan
demonstrates bilateral diffuse, coarse, linear, and nodular
areas of increased attenuation with cavitation (arrows).
67. Lung destruction in postprimary tuberculosis. Axial CT scan
demonstrates a fibrotic, shrunken left lung with
compensatory overexpansion of the right lung extending
across the midline. Bronchiectatic changes are
noted bilaterally (arrows).
68. Bronchiectasis in postprimary tuberculosis. Axial CT scan
demonstrates bronchiectasis in the left lung (arrows) with areas of
emphysema.
69. Fibroproliferative disease. Frontal chest radiograph shows
clumped nodular and linear areas of increased opacity in both
upper lobes and in the right middle lobe (white arrows). There
is accompanying volume loss in the right upper lobe as well as
overlying apical pleural thickening (black arrow).
70. Cavitary tuberculosis associated with aspergilloma. Frontalradiographshows a
cavity in the left upperlobe (black arrow) with a dependent area of soft-tissue
opacity(solidwhitearrow). The crescenticarea of hyperlucency(open arrow)
represents residual air in the cavity and is referred to as the air crescent sign.
Axial CT scan shows dependent soft-tissueaspergilloma(black arrow) within
the cavity (solidwhitearrow), along with the air crescent sign (open arrow).
71. Endobronchial spread of tuberculosis.
Axial CT scan shows severe changes of bronchiolar dilatation
and impaction. Bronchiolar wall thickening (straight arrows) and
mucoid impaction of contiguous branching bronchioles produce a tree-
in-bud appearance (curved arrows).
72. Tuberculous broncholithiasis. Chest radiograph demonstrates partial atelectasis
of the right upper lobe (straight arrow) with calcified hilar lymph nodes
bilaterally (curved arrows). Axial CT scan demonstrates erosion of the right
main bronchus (straight solid arrow) by a calcified hilar lymph node (curved
arrow). A calcified precarinal lymph node is also noted (open arrow). The
differential diagnosis for mediastinal lymph node calcification includes
histoplasmosis, silicosis,and treatedlymphoma.
74. Tuberculous involvement of
the left sternoclavicular
joint. Oblique radiograph
demonstrates irregularity
of the medial end of the left
clavicle (black arrow)
with an associated soft-tissue
mass (white arrow).
75. Plombage in a patient with postprimary tuberculosis. Frontal chest
radiograph demonstrates typical right-sided Lucite ball plombage.
There is thinning and disorganization of the overlying ribs (straight
arrow). Air-fluid levels in the Lucite balls (curved arrows) suggest
bronchopleural fistulas.
76. Radiology:
1. Bilateral upper zone fibrotic shadows: with
shift of trachea, mediastinum, distortion of
fissures and diaphragm, and elevation of the
pulmonary hila.
2. Soft confluent shadows of exudative lesion
(D.D pneumonia)
3 Calcification.
4. Cavitation.
5. Tuberculoma.
6. Hilar and paratracheal lymph node
enlargement may be present.
77. Radiological classification:
1.Minimal: slight or moderate opacity. No
cavity. Extent not more than space
above 2nd costocondral junction.
2. Moderately advanced: In one or both
lungs. slight or moderate opacity, extent
equivalent to volume of one lung. Dense
confluent shadow equivalent to one third
the volume of one lung. Diameter of
cavities not more than 4 cm.
3. Far advanced:
Any lesion>the moderately advanced.
78. Diasnosis:
1) Clinical
2) Plain X-ray.
3) Sputum Examination: direct smear and culture (very
important).
4) Other samples: Gastric aspirate, laryngeal swab, fiberoptic
specimens (wash,brush,biopsy),transtracheal spirate.
5 Polymerase chain reaction.)
6) Tuberclin test: mainly strongly positive
7) Others
White blood cells if normal favour the diagnosis
ESR may be elevated.
Normocytic normochromic anaemia.
CT may be useful in detecting small cavities,
or calcification.
79.
80. Miliary Tuberculosis
Produced by acute dissemination of tubercle
bacilli via the blood stream.The term miliary
derives from the radiological picture of
diffuse, discrete nodular shadows about the
size of millet seed (2mm).
81. A- Classical form:
Clinical features:
Most common in infants and young children with acute
or subacute febrile illness.
In adults: the onset is insidious, gradual vague ill health.
Malaise, Cough (usually dry), dyspnea. Night sweat is
less common.
Headache suggest associated tuberculous meningitis
Chest examination is free, crepitations may be found.
Hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, lymphadenopathy,
neck rigidity may be found in rare cases.
82. Diasnosis:
1) Clinical.
2) Xray.
3) Choroidal tubercles in fundus examination
4) Tuberclin test not conclusive
5) Direct smear and culture of sputum if
present.
6) Other samples as transtracheal aspirate,
fiberoptic specimens may be obtained.
7) If failed to prove therapeutic trial for 2
weeks
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
97.
98.
99.
100.
101.
102.
103. Cardiac Tuberculosis
Although tuberculosis rarely involves the heart
pericardial involvement may occasionally be
seen with mediastinal and pulmonary
tuberculosis and is a cause of calcific
pericarditis (
104. Tuberculoma of the right atrium in a patient with miliary tuberculosis. Axial T2-weighted
magnetic resonance (MR) image demonstrates a hyperintense mass in the right atrium (straight
arrow). Note also the right pleural effusion (curved arrow). The mass proved to be a
tuberculoma at surgery. Tuberculous pericarditis in a patient with pleuropulmonary
tuberculosis. Axial CT scan demonstrates pericardial thickening (straight solid arrow).
Pulmonary tuberculomas (curved arrows) and a right pleural effusion (open arrow) are also
seen.
105. Skeletal Tuberculosis
Tuberculous Spondylitis (Pott Disease)
The spine is the most frequent site of osseous
involvement in tuberculosis , with the upper lumbar
and lower thoracic spine being involved most
frequently. More than one vertebra is typically
affected, and the vertebral body is more commonly
involved than the posterior elements. An anterior
predilection is seen in the vertebral body
106. Tuberculous spondylitis. Lateral radiograph demonstrates obliteration of the disk
space (straight arrow) with destruction of the adjacent end plates (curved arrow)
and anterior wedging. Subligamentous spread of spinal tuberculosis. Lateral
radiograph demonstrates erosion of the anterior margin of the vertebral body
(arrow) caused by an adjacent soft-tissue abscess.
107. Tuberculous spondylitis. Axial CT scan demonstrates lytic
destruction of the vertebral body (black arrow) with an
adjoining soft-tissue abscess (white arrow).
108. Iliopsoas abscess.Axial CT scan demonstrates
large, multiloculated iliopsoas abscesses
bilaterally (arrowheads). Note also the presacral
abscess (solid arrow) accompanied by erosion of
the anterior sacrum (open arrow).
110. Extraspinal Tuberculous
Osteomyelitis
Tuberculous osteomyelitis is usually hematogenous
in origin and is most commonly seen in bones of
the extremities, including the smallbones of the
hands and feet. In long, tubular bones, tuberculosis
often involves the epiphyses.In children,
metaphyseal foci can involve the growth plate. This
feature differentiates tuberculosis from pyogenic
infection
111. Tuberculous osteomyelitis involving the skull. Axial contrast-
enhanced CT scan demonstrates a bilobed, peripherally
enhancing cold abscess centered along the right frontal bone
(arrow, arrowhead). Note the significant edema and the mass
effect on the underlying brain parenchyma. Axial CT scan
obtained with bone windowing demonstrates an ill-defined
lytic area of bone destruction (arrow).
112. Tuberculous spondylitis. Sagittal T2-weighted MR
image demonstrates areas of increased signal
intensity due to edema in vertebral bodies.
Accompanying disk narrowing (white arrow) and
extension of the disease into the spinal canal (black
arrow) are also seen.
113. Tuberculous osteomyelitis. Anteroposterior radiograph
demonstrates a lytic area of bone destruction (arrow) with
transphyseal spread of infection across the growth plate.
114. Tuberculous arthritis of the knee joint. Frontal radiograph
demonstrates periarticular osteopenia (black arrow), peripheral
osseous erosions (white arrow), and relative preservation of the
joint space. Tuberculous arthritis of the knee joint. Sagittal
gadolinium-enhanced T1-weighted MR image demonstrates
peripheral enhancement around the low-signal-intensity joint
collection (straight arrow). Note the presence of marginal joint
erosions (curved arrow).
115. Gastrointestinal Tuberculosis
Although abdominal tuberculosis is usually
secondary to pulmonary tuberculosis,
radiologic evaluation often shows no evidence
of lung disease
Ileocecum and Colon
The ileocecal region is the most common area of
involvement in the gastrointestinal tract due to
the abundance of lymphoid tissue. The natural
course of gastrointestinal tuberculosis may be
ulcerative, hypertrophic, or ulcerohypertrophic
116. Ileocecal tuberculosis.
Radiograph obtained
with peroral
pneumocolon technique
demonstrates a conical
and shrunken cecum
(straight arrow)
retracted out of the iliac
fossa by contraction of
the mesocolon. Note also
the narrowing of the
terminal ileum (curved
arrow).
117. Ileocecal tuberculosis. Axial CT scan demonstrates concentric cecal
wall thickening (arrow). Axial CT scan obtained caudad to a
demonstrates diffuse thickening of the terminal ileum (arrow).
Ileocecal tuberculosis and peritoneal tuberculosis (wet type). Axial
CT scan demonstrates concentric thickening of the cecum (straight
solid arrow). Small bowel dilatation (curved arrow), ascites in the
greater peritoneal space, and thickening of the peritoneum
(open arrow) are also seen.
118. Peritoneum
Peritoneal involvement in tuberculosis is rare and is
usually associated with widespread abdominal
disease involving lymph nodes or bowel .Three
principal types of tuberculous peritoneal
involvement are recognized. The wet type is the
most common and is associated with large amounts
of viscous ascitic fluid that may be either diffusely
distributed or loculated .The fluid demonstrates high
attenuation at CT due to its high protein and cellular
content .The dry or plastic type is uncommon and is
characterized by caseous nodules, fibrous peritoneal
reaction, and dense adhesions
119. The fibrotic fixed type (consists of large omental
masses, matted loops of bowel and mesentery,and,
on occasion, loculated ascites .CT may also
demonstrate tethering of bowel loops. Infiltration
of the mesentery, when associated with a large
amount of ascites, may have a stellate appearance
at CT.
120. Peritoneal tuberculosis (dry type). Axial CT scan
demonstrates thickening and infiltration of the
peritoneum (white arrows) along with thickening
of bowel loops. Note the small amount of loculated
fluid (black arrow).
121. Peritoneal tuberculosis (fibrotic type). Axial contrast-enhanced
CT scan demonstrates enhancing thickened peritoneum
(straight arrow) with an adjoining matted loop of small bowel
(curved arrow).
122. Abdominal tuberculous lymphadenitis.
Axial contrast-enhanced CT scan demonstrates multiple
enlarged mesenteric lymph nodes with central areas
of low attenuation (arrow).
123. Hepatic tuberculosis.
Axial contrast-enhanced
CT scan demonstrates multiple nonuniform,
low-attenuation lesions within the liver (straight arrows).
An enlarged gastrohepatic lymph node is also
seen (curved arrow).
124. Tuberculous
pyonephrosis.
Retrograde pyelogram
shows filling of the dilated
hydronephrotic lower and
middle pole of the right
kidney. The collecting
system has irregular
margins (straight solid
arrow) and shows
irregular filling defects
(curved arrow) from
necrosis of the
parenchyma. Upper pole
calcification is also seen
(open arrow).
125. Renal tuberculosis.
Chest radiograph that includes
the upper abdomen
demonstrates lobar
calcification in the right kidney
(black arrow). Note also the
bilateral fibrocalcific changes
in the upper lobes (white
arrows).
126. Renal tuberculosis
Axial contrast-enhanced
CT scan demonstrates left tuberculous pyonephrosis
(straight solid arrow) with extension of the inflammatory
process into the perinephric space (curved arrow)
and accompanying peritoneal disease (open arrow).
128. Bladder tuberculosis.
Axial contrast-enhanced CT scan demonstrates a thickened and
deformed bladder with an enhancing wall (straight arrow). There is
extension of the inflammatory process to the anterior abdominal wall
(curved arrow). Intravenous urogram demonstrates a thickened,
contracted, low-capacity bladder (thimble bladder) (arrowhead) with
minimal dilatation of both ureters.
130. Cranial tuberculous meningitis.
Axial gadolinium-enhanced T1-weighted MR image demonstrates leptomeningeal
enhancement along the left sylvian fissure (straight arrow). There is an
accompanying ring-enhancing granuloma in the left parieto-occipital region
(curved arrow).
131. Cranial tuberculomas
Axial contrastenhanced CT scan demonstrates multiple
ring-enhancing lesions (straight arrows) along with
diffuse meningeal enhancement (curved arrow).
132. Solid caseating tuberculous granulomas involving the
cerebellum. Axial T2-weighted MR image demonstrates
multiple granulomas with central areas of hypointensity in
the cerebellum (arrows). Tuberculous granulomas involving
the cerebellum. Axial T1-weighted MR image demonstrates
isointense lesions with mildly hyperintense rims in the
cerebellum (arrows).
133. Bilateral tuberculous mastoiditis.
Highresolution CT scan of the temporal bone demonstrates
bilateral destructive lesions in the mastoid processes (straight
arrows). There is an accompanying cold abscess overlying
the right temporo-occipital region (curved arrow).
135. Conclusions
Tuberculosis can affect virtually any organ system in the
body and can be devastating if left untreated. The
increasing prevalence of this disease in both
immunocompetent and immunocompromised individuals
makes tuberculosis a topic of universal concern.
Tuberculosis has a variety of radiologic appearances and
can mimic numerous other disease entities. A high degree
of clinical suspicion and familiarity with the various
radiologic manifestations of tuberculosis allow early
diagnosis and timely initiation of appropriate therapy,
thereby reducing patient morbidity.